互联网安全：加密原理、算法与协议

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"《Internet Security Cryptographic Principles, Algorithms》是一本深入探讨互联网安全理论与实践的书籍，适合高级和研究生级别的学生、专业工程师以及研究人员作为了解互联网安全原理的入门读物。书中包含了11章，重点讨论了互联网相关的关键安全问题。作者Man Young Rhee是首尔国立大学电气与计算机工程学院的教授。本书由John Wiley & Sons Ltd出版，并强调了所有版权保护，未经许可不得复制或传播。" 该书的核心知识点涵盖以下几个方面： 1. **密码学基础**：书中可能详细介绍了密码学的基本原理，包括对称加密和非对称加密。对称加密如DES（数据加密标准）和AES（高级加密标准），以及非对称加密如RSA和椭圆曲线加密，它们在互联网通信中的应用和安全性。 2. **数字签名与认证**：可能涉及公钥基础设施（PKI）、数字证书、哈希函数和数字签名的概念，这些是确保身份验证和数据完整性的关键工具。 3. **密钥管理**：密钥的生成、分发、存储、更新和销毁是网络安全的重要环节，书中可能会详细讲解这些过程及其挑战。 4. **安全协议**：SSL/TLS协议对于保障互联网上的安全通信至关重要，书中可能对其工作原理和实现进行了深入分析，也可能提及其他网络安全协议如IPSec和SSH。 5. **网络安全威胁与防护**：可能会讨论各种网络攻击类型，如中间人攻击、拒绝服务攻击（DoS）、钓鱼攻击等，以及相应的防御策略和最佳实践。 6. **密码分析与安全性评估**：书中可能涉及密码系统的安全性评估方法，包括对加密算法的强度分析、密码破解技术和抵抗攻击的策略。 7. **隐私保护**：随着大数据和云计算的发展，隐私保护成为了重要议题。书中可能探讨了匿名通信技术、零知识证明和差分隐私等概念。 8. **安全设计原则**：书中可能涵盖了最小权限原则、开放设计原则、安全默认设置和安全更新机制等设计原则，这些都是构建安全系统的基础。 9. **案例研究与实践**：为了更好地理解和应用理论知识，书中可能包含实际的案例研究，展示如何在现实世界中解决安全问题。 10. **未来趋势与挑战**：最后，作者可能会讨论当前和未来的网络安全挑战，如量子计算对现有加密技术的威胁，以及新兴技术如区块链和物联网带来的安全问题。《Internet Security Cryptographic Principles, Algorithms》全面地涵盖了互联网安全领域的关键概念和技术，是深入学习和理解这个领域不可或缺的参考资料。

Preface

The Internet is global in scope, but this global internetwork is an open insecure medium.

The Internet has revolutionised the computing and communications world for the purpose

of development and support of client and server services. The availability of the Internet,

along with powerful affordable computing and communications, has made possible a new

paradigm of commercial world. This has been tremendously accelerated by the adoption

of browsers and World Wide Web technology, allowing users easy access to information

linked throughout the globe. The Internet has truly proven to be an essential vehicle of

information trade today.

The Internet is today a widespread information infrastructure, a mechanism for infor-

mation dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals,

government agencies, ﬁnancial institutions, academic circles and businesses of all sizes,

without regard for geographic location.

People have become increasingly dependent on the Internet for personal and profes-

sional use regardless of whether it is for e-mail, ﬁle transfer, remote login, Web page

access or commercial transactions. With the increased awareness and popularity of the

Internet, Internet security problems have been brought to the fore. Internet security is

not only extremely important, but more technically complex than in the past. The mere

fact that business is being performed online over an insecure medium is enough to entice

criminal activity to the Internet.

The Internet access often creates a threat as a security ﬂaw. To protect users from Internet-

based attacks and to provide adequate solutions when security is imposed, cryptographic

techniques must be employed to solve these problems. This book is designed to reﬂect the

central role of cryptographic operations, principles, algorithms and protocols in Internet

security. The remedy for all kinds of threats created by criminal activities should rely on

cryptographic resolution. Authentication, message integrity and encryption are very impor-

tant in cultivating, improving, and promoting Internet security. Without such authentication

procedures, an attacker could impersonate anyone and then gain access to the network.

Message integrity is required because data may be altered as it travels through the Internet.

Without conﬁdentiality by encryption, information may become truly public.

The material in this book presents the theory and practice on Internet security and its

implementation through a rigorous, thorough and qualitative presentation in depth. The

level of the book is designed to be suitable for senior and graduate students, professional

engineers and researchers as an introduction to Internet security principles. The book

xiv PREFACE

consists of 11 chapters and focuses on the critical security issues related to the Internet.

The following is a summary of the contents of each chapter.

Chapter 1 begins with a brief history of the Internet and describes topics covering

(1) networking fundamentals such as LANs (Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI), WANs (Frame

Relay, X.25, PPP) and ATM; (2) connecting devices such as circuit- and packet-switches,

repeaters, bridges, routers, and gateways; (3) the OSI model which speciﬁes the function-

ality of its seven layers; and ﬁnally (4) a TCP/IP ﬁve-layer suite providing a hierarchical

protocol made up of physical standards, a network interface and internetworking.

Chapter 2 presents a state-of-the-art survey of the TCP/IP suite. Topics covered include

(1) TCP/IP network layer protocols such as ICMP, IP version 4 and IP version 6 relat-

ing to the IP packet format, addressing (including ARP, RARP and CIDR) and rout-

ing; (2) transport layer protocols such as TCP and UDP; (3) HTTP for the World Wide

Web; (4) FTP, TFTP and NFS protocols for ﬁle transfer; (5) SMTP, POP3, IMAP and

MIME for e-mail; and (6) SNMP protocol for network management.

Chapter 3 deals with some of the important contemporary block cipher algorithms that

have been developed over recent years with an emphasis on the most widely used encryp-

tion techniques such as Data Encryption Standard (DES), International Data Encryption

Algorithm (IDEA), the RC5 and RC6 encryption algorithms, and Advanced Encryption

Standard (AES). AES speciﬁes an FIPS-approved Rijndael algorithm (2001) that can pro-

cess data blocks of 128 bits, using cipher keys with lengths of 128, 192 and 256 bits.

DES is not new, but it has survived remarkably well over 20 years of intense cryptanal-

ysis. The complete analysis of triple DES-EDE in CBC mode is also included., Pretty

Good Privacy (PGP) used for electronic mail (e-mail) and ﬁle storage applications utilises

IDEA for conventional block encryption, along with RSA for public key encryption and

MD5 for hash coding. RC5 and RC6 are both parameterised block algorithms of variable

size, variable number of rounds, and a variable-length key. They are designed for great

ﬂexibility in both performance and level of security.

Chapter 4 covers the various authentication techniques based on digital signatures. It

is often necessary for communication parties to verify each other’s identity. One practical

way to do this is the use of cryptographic authentication protocols employing a one-way

hash function. Several contemporary hash functions (such as DMDC, MD5 and SHA-1)

are introduced to compute message digests or hash codes for providing a systematic

approach to authentication. This chapter also extends the discussion to include the Internet

standard HMAC, which is a secure digest of protected data. HMAC is used with a variety

of different hash algorithms, including MD5 and SHA-1. Transport Layer Security (TLS)

also makes use of the HMAC algorithm.

Chapter 5 describes several public-key cryptosystems brought in after conventional

encryption. This chapter concentrates on their use in providing techniques for public-key

encryption, digital signature and authentication. This chapter covers in detail the widely

used Difﬁe–Hellman key exchange technique (1976), the Rivest–Schamir–Adleman

(RSA) algorithm (1978), the ElGamal algorithm (1985), the Schnorr algorithm (1990),

the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA, 1991) and the Elliptic Curve Cryptosystem

(ECC, 1985) and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA, 1999).

Chapter 6 presents proﬁles related to a public-key infrastructure (PKI) for the Internet.

The PKI automatically manages public keys through the use of public-key certiﬁcates. The

PREFACE xv

Policy Approval Authority (PAA) is the root of the certiﬁcate management infrastructure.

This authority is known to all entities at entire levels in the PKI, and creates guidelines that

all users, CAs and subordinate policy-making authorities must follow. Policy Certiﬁcate

Authorities (PCAs) are formed by all entities at the second level of the infrastructure.

PCAs must publish their security policies, procedures, legal issues, fees and any other

subjects they may consider necessary. Certiﬁcation Authorities (CAs) form the next level

below the PCAs. The PKI contains many CAs that have no policy-making responsibilities.

A CA has any combination of users and RAs whom it certiﬁes. The primary function of the

CA is to generate and manage the public-key certiﬁcates that bind the user’s identity with

the user’s public key. The Registration Authority (RA) is the interface between a user and

a CA. The primary function of the RA is user identiﬁcation and authentication on behalf

of a CA. It also delivers the CA-generated certiﬁcate to the end user. X.500 speciﬁes the

directory service. X.509 describes the authentication service using the X.500 directory.

X.509 certiﬁcates have evolved through three versions: version 1 in 1988, version 2 in

1993 and version 3 in 1996. X.509 v3 is now found in numerous products and Internet

standards. These three versions are explained in turn. Finally, Certiﬁcate Revocation

Lists (CRLs) are used to list unexpired certiﬁcates that have been revoked. CRLs may

be revoked for a variety of reasons, ranging from routine administrative revocations to

situations where private keys are compromised. This chapter also includes the certiﬁcation

path validation procedure for the Internet PKI and architectural structures for the PKI

certiﬁcate management infrastructure.

Chapter 7 describes the IPsec protocol for network layer security. IPsec provides the

capability to secure communications across a LAN, across a virtual private network (VPN)

over the Internet or over a public WAN. Provision of IPsec enables a business to rely heav-

ily on the Internet. The IPsec protocol is a set of security extensions developed by IETF to

provide privacy and authentication services at the IP layer using cryptographic algorithms

and protocols. To protect the contents of an IP datagram, there are two main transfor-

mation types: the Authentication Header (AH) and the Encapsulating Security Payload

(ESP). These are protocols to provide connectionless integrity, data origin authentication,

conﬁdentiality and an anti-replay service. A Security Association (SA) is fundamental

to IPsec. Both AH and ESP make use of a SA that is a simple connection between a

sender and receiver, providing security services to the trafﬁc carried on it. This chapter

also includes the OAKLEY key determination protocol and ISAKMP.

Chapter 8 discusses Secure Socket Layer version 3 (SSLv3) and Transport Layer

Security version 1 (TLSv1). The TLSv1 protocol itself is based on the SSLv3 protocol

speciﬁcation. Many of the algorithm-dependent data structures and rules are very simi-

lar, so the differences between TLSv1 and SSLv3 are not dramatic. The TLSv1 protocol

provides communications privacy and data integrity between two communicating parties

over the Internet. Both protocols allow client/server applications to communicate in a

way that is designed to prevent eavesdropping, tampering or message forgery. The SSL

or TLS protocols are composed of two layers: Record Protocol and Handshake Protocol.

The Record Protocol takes an upper-layer application message to be transmitted, frag-

ments the data into manageable blocks, optionally compresses the data, applies a MAC,

encrypts it, adds a header and transmits the result to TCP. Received data is decrypted to

higher-level clients. The Handshake Protocol operated on top of the Record Layer is the

xvi PREFACE

most important part of SSL or TLS. The Handshake Protocol consists of a series of mes-

sages exchanged by client and server. This protocol provides three services between the

server and client. The Handshake Protocol allows the client/server to agree on a protocol

version, to authenticate each other by forming a MAC, and to negotiate an encryption

algorithm and cryptographic keys for protecting data sent in an SSL record before the

application protocol transmits or receives its ﬁrst byte of data.

A keyed hashing message authentication code (HMAC) is a secure digest of some

protected data. Forging an HMAC is impossible without knowledge of the MAC secret.

HMAC can be used with a variety of different hash algorithms: MD5 and SHA-1, denoting

these as HMAC-MD5 (secret, data) and SHA-1 (secret, data). There are two differences

between the SSLv3 scheme and the TLS MAC scheme: TSL makes use of the HMAC

algorithm deﬁned in RFC 2104; and TLS master-secret computation is also different from

that of SSLv3.

Chapter 9 describes e-mail security. Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), invented by Philip

Zimmermann, is widely used in both individual and commercial versions that run on a

variety of platforms throughout the global computer community. PGP uses a combination

of symmetric secret-key and asymmetric public-key encryption to provide security services

for e-mail and data ﬁles. PGP also provides data integrity services for messages and

data ﬁles using digital signatures, encryption, compression (ZIP) and radix-64 conversion

(ASCII Armor). With growing reliance on e-mail and ﬁle storage, authentication and

conﬁdentiality services are increasingly important. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension

(MIME) is an extension to the RFC 822 framework which deﬁnes a format for text

messages sent using e-mail. MIME is actually intended to address some of the problems

and limitations of the use of SMTP. S/MIME is a security enhancement to the MIME

Internet e-mail format standard, based on technology from RSA Data Security. Although

both PGP and S/MIME are on an IETF standards track, it appears likely that PGP will

remain the choice for personal e-mail security for many users, while S/MIME will emerge

as the industry standard for commercial and organisational use. The two PGP and S/MIME

schemes are covered in this chapter.

Chapter 10 discusses the topic of ﬁrewalls as an effective means of protecting an

internal system from Internet-based security threats. A ﬁrewall is a security gateway that

controls access between the public Internet and a private internal network (or intranet). A

ﬁrewall is an agent that screens network trafﬁc in some way, blocking trafﬁc it believes to

be inappropriate, dangerous or both. The security concerns that inevitably arise between

the sometimes hostile Internet and secure intranets are often dealt with by inserting one or

more ﬁrewalls on the path between the Internet and the internal network. In reality, Internet

access provides beneﬁts to individual users, government agencies and most organisations.

But this access often creates a security threat.

Firewalls act as an intermediate server in handling SMTP and HTTP connections in

either direction. Firewalls also require the use of an access negotiation and encapsulation

protocol such as SOCKS to gain access to the Internet, to the intranet or both. Many

ﬁrewalls support tri-homing, allowing the use of a DMZ network. To design and conﬁgure

a ﬁrewall, it needs to be familiar with some basic terminology such as a bastion host,

proxy server, SOCKS, choke point, DMZ, logging and alarming, VPN, etc. Firewalls are

PREFACE xvii

classiﬁed into three main categories: packet ﬁlters, circuit-level gateways and application-

level gateways. In this chapter, each of these ﬁrewalls is examined in turn. Finally, this

chapter discusses screened host ﬁrewalls and how to implement a ﬁrewall strategy. To

provide a certain level of security, the three basic ﬁrewall designs are considered: a

single-homed bastion host, a dual-homed bastion host and a screened subnet ﬁrewall.

Chapter 11 covers the SET protocol designed for protecting credit card transactions

over the Internet. The recent explosion in e-commerce has created huge opportunities

for consumers, retailers and ﬁnancial institutions alike. SET relies on cryptography and

X.509 v3 digital certiﬁcates to ensure message conﬁdentiality, payment integrity and

identity authentication. Using SET, consumers and merchants are protected by ensuring

that payment information is safe and can only be accessed by the intended recipient. SET

combats the risk of transaction information being altered in transit by keeping information

securely encrypted at all times and by using digital certiﬁcates to verify the identity of

those accessing payment details. SET is the only Internet transaction protocol to provide

security through authentication. Message data is encrypted with a random symmetric

key which is then encrypted using the recipient’s public key. The encrypted message,

along with this digital envelope, is sent to the recipient. The recipient decrypts the digital

envelope with a private key and then uses the symmetric key to recover the original

message. SET addresses the anonymity of Internet shopping by using digital signatures and

digital certiﬁcates to authenticate the banking relationships of cardholders and merchants.

How to ensure secure payment card transactions on the Internet is fully explored in

this chapter.

The scope of this book is adequate to span a one- or two-semester course at a senior

or ﬁrst-year graduate level. As a reference book, it will be useful to computer engineers,

communications engineers and system engineers. It is also suitable for self-study. The

book is intended for use in both academic and professional circles, and it is also suitable

for corporate training programmes or seminars for industrial organisations as well as

research institutes. At the end of the book, there is a list of frequently used acronyms,

and a bibliography.

Man Young Rhee

Seoul, Korea

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