MIPS汇编语言编程基础

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"Introduction To MIPS Assembly Language Programming.pdf 是一本由Charles W. Kann编写的开放教育资源，旨在教授学生MIPS汇编语言编程。这本书涵盖了基础操作符和指令、子程序调用、加载与存储内存、程序控制以及如何将汇编语言程序转换为机器代码等主题。" 在深入探讨MIPS汇编语言编程之前，首先需要了解MIPS架构的基础。MIPS（Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages，无互锁流水线阶段微处理器）是一种精简指令集计算机（RISC）架构，广泛用于教学和嵌入式系统。它的设计理念是通过减少复杂性和提高指令执行效率来优化性能。本书的核心知识点包括： 1. **基本指令和操作符**：MIPS汇编语言有多种指令类型，如数据传输指令（如 lw 和 sw，用于从内存加载和存储数据）、算术运算指令（如 add、sub、mul 和 div）、逻辑运算指令（如 and、or、xor）以及分支和跳转指令（如 beq 和 j）。操作符则用于指示指令的操作，例如操作数的数量和类型。 2. **寄存器使用**：MIPS架构有一个32个通用寄存器的银行，这些寄存器用于临时存储数据和指令指针。了解如何有效利用有限的寄存器对于编写高效代码至关重要。 3. **程序结构**：包括函数或子程序的定义和调用，以及如何使用 jal 指令进行递归或非递归调用，并通过jr指令返回。 4. **内存访问**：学习如何使用地址和基址寄存器来访问内存中的数据，以及如何通过栈来管理函数调用时的局部变量。 5. **控制流程**：涵盖条件分支（beq, bne等）和无条件跳转（j, jal）指令，以及循环的实现方法。 6. **数据处理**：包括位操作、移位和填充，以及如何使用向量和数组进行批量处理。 7. **程序链接和加载**：理解ELF（Executable and Linkable Format）文件格式，以及如何将多个汇编源文件链接成一个可执行程序。 8. **汇编和反汇编**：学习如何将高级语言转换为汇编代码（汇编过程），以及如何将汇编代码转换为机器码（编译过程）。 9. **调试技巧**：使用模拟器（如MARS或SPIM）进行程序调试，理解和解读汇编程序的运行步骤。通过本书的学习，读者将能够掌握MIPS汇编语言的基本概念和实际编程技巧，这对于理解计算机底层工作原理和开发低级系统软件非常有帮助。此外，书中可能还包括实践练习和案例分析，以巩固理论知识并提升实际编程能力。

INTRODUCTION TO MIPS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING

What you will learn

In this chapter you will learn:

1. binary numbers, and how they relate to computer hardware.

2. to convert to/from binary, decimal, and hexadecimal

3. binary character data representation in ASCII

4. integer numbers, which are represented in binary 2's complement format.

5. arithmetic operations for binary numbers

6. binary logic operations

7. the effect of context on data values in a computer.

Chapter 1 Introduction

One of the major goals of computer science is to use abstraction to insulate the users from how

the computer works. For instance, computers can interpret speech and use natural language

processing to allow novice users to perform some pretty amazing tasks. Even programming

languages are written to enhance the ability of the person writing the code to create and support

the program, and a goal of most modern languages is to be hardware agnostic.

Abstraction is a very positive goal, but at some level a computer is just a machine. While High

Level Languages (HLL) abstract and hide the underlying hardware, they must be translated into

assembly language to use the hardware. One of the goals of a computer science education is to

strip away these abstraction and make the workings of the computing machine clear. Without an

understanding of a computer as a machine, even the best programmer, system administrator,

support staff, etc., will have significant gaps in what they are able to accomplish. A basic

understanding of hardware is important to any computer professional.

Learning assembly language is different than learning a HLL. Assembly language is intended to

directly manipulate the hardware that a program is run on. It does not rely on the ability to

abstract behavior, instead giving the ability to specify exactly how the hardware is to work to the

programmer. Therefore it uses a very different vocabulary than a HLL. That vocabulary is not

composed of statements, variables and numbers but of operations, instructions, addresses, and

bits.

In assembly it is important to remember that the actual hardware to be used only understands

binary values 0 and 1. To begin studying assembly, the reader must understand the basics of

binary and how it is used in assembly language programming. The chapter is written to help the

reader with the concepts of binary numbers.

Chapter 1. 1 Binary Numbers

Chapter 1.1. 1 Values for Binary Numbers

Many students will have had a class covering logic or Boolean algebra, where the binary values are

generally true(T) and false(F), and use special symbols such as "^" for AND and "˅" for OR. This

INTRODUCTION TO MIPS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING

might be fine for mathematics and logic, but is hopelessly inadequate for the engineering task of

creating computer machines and languages.

To begin, the physical implementation of a binary value in a Central Processing Unit's (CPU)

hardware, called a bit, is implemented as a circuit called a flip-flop or latch. A flip-flop has a voltage

of either 0 volts or a positive voltage (most computers use +5 volts, but many modern computers use

+3.3 volts, and any positive voltage is valid). If a flip-flop has a positive voltage it is called high or

on (true), and if it has 0 volts it is low or off (false). In addition hardware is made up of gates that

which can either be open (true) or closed (false). Finally the goal of a computer is to be able to work

with data that a person can understand. These numbers are always large, and hard to represent as a

series of true or false values. When the values become large, people work best with numbers, so the

binary number 0 is called false, and 1 is called true. Thus while computers work with binary, there

are a number of ways we can talk about that binary. If the discussion is about memory, the value is

high, on, or 1. When the purpose is to describe a gate, it is open/closed. If there is a logical operations

values can be true/false. The following table summarizes the binary value naming conventions.

T/F

Number

Switch

Voltage

Gate

Off

Low

Closed

High

Open

Table 1-1: Various names for binary values

In addition to the various names, engineers are more comfortable with real operators. This book

will follow the convention that "+" is an OR operator, "*" is an AND operator, and "!"

(pronounced bang) is a not operator.

Some students are uncomfortable with the ambiguity in the names for true and false. They often

feel that the way the binary values were presented in their mathematics classes (as true/false) is

the "correct" way to represent them. But keep in mind that this class is about implementing a

computer in hardware. There is no correct, or even more correct, way to discuss binary values.

How they will be referred to will depend on the way in which the value is being used.

Understanding a computer requires the individual to be adaptable to all of these ways of referring

to binary values. They will all be used in this text, though most of the time the binary values of 0

and 1 will be used.

Chapter 1.1. 2 Binary Whole Numbers

The numbering system that everyone learns in school is called decimal or base 10. This

numbering system is called decimal because it has 10 digits, [0..9]. Thus quantities up to 9 can

be easily referenced in this system by a single number.

Computers use switches that can be either on (1) or off(0), and so computers use the binary, or

base 2, numbering system. In binary, there are only two digits, 0 and 1. So values up to 1 can be

easily represented by a single digit. Having only the ability to represent 0 or 1 items is too

limiting to be useful. But then so are the 10 values which can be used in the decimal system.

The question is how does the decimal handle the problem of numbers greater than 9, and can

binary use the same idea?

In decimal when 1 is added to 9 the number 10 is created. The number 10 means that there is 1

group of ten numbers, and 0 one number. The number 11 is 1 group of 10 and 1 group of one.

INTRODUCTION TO MIPS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING

When 99 is reached, we have 100, which is 1 group of hundred, 0 tens, and 0 ones. So the

number 1,245 would be:

1,245 = 1*10

+ 2*10

+ 4*10

+ 5*10

Base 2 can be handled in the same manner. The number 10

(base 2) is 1 group of two and 0

ones, or just 2

(base 10).

Counting in base 2 is the same. To count in base 2, the numbers are

, 1

, 10

, 11

, 100

, 101

, 110

111

, etc. Any number in base 2 can be converted to base 10

using this principal. Consider 101011

, which is:

1*2

+ 0*2

+ 1*2

+ 0 *2

+ 1*2

= 32 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 43

In order to work with base 2 number, it is necessary to know the value of the powers of 2. The

following table gives the powers of 2 for the first 16 numbers (to 2

). It is highly recommended

that students memorize at least the first 11 values of this table (to 2

), as these will be used

frequently.

256

4096

512

8192

1024

16348

126

2048

32768

Table 1-2: Values of 2

for n = 0...15

The first 11 powers of 2 are the most important because the values of 2

are named when n is a

decimal number evenly dividable by 10. For example 2

is 1 Kilo, 2

is 1 Meg, etc. The names

for these value of 2

are given in the following table. Using these names and the values of 2

from 0-9, it is possible to name all of the binary numbers easily as illustrated below. To find the

value of 2

, we would write:

= 2

= 1K * 64 = 64K

Older programmers will recognize this as the limit to the segment size on older PC's which could

only address 16 bits. Younger students will recognize the value of 2

, which is:

= 2

* 2

= 1G * 4 = 4G

4M was the limit of memory available on more recent PC's with 32 bit addressing, though that

limit has been moved with the advent of 64 bit computers. The names for the various values of

are given in the following table.

Kilo

Giga

Penta

Mega

Tera

Exa

The old joke is that there are 10 types of people in the world, those who know binary and those who do not.

INTRODUCTION TO MIPS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING

Table 1-3: Names for values of 2n, n = 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60

Chapter 1. 2 Converting Binary, Decimal, and Hex Numbers

Chapter 1.2. 1 Converting Binary to Decimal

Computers think in 0's and 1's, and when dealing with the internal workings of a computer

humans must adjust to the computers mindset. However when the computer produces answers,

the humans that use them like to think in decimal. So it is often necessary for programmers to be

able to convert between what the computer wants to see (binary), and what the human end users

want to see (decimal). These next 3 sections will deal with how to convert binary to decimal,

and then give 2 ways to convert decimal to binary. Finally it will give a section on a useful

representation for handling large binary numbers called hexadecimal.

To convert binary to decimal, it is only necessary to remember that each 0 or 1 in a binary

number represents the amount of that binary power of 2. For each binary power of 2, you have

either 0 or 1 instance of that number. To see this, consider the binary number 1001010

. This

number has 1 * 2

+ 0 * 2

+ 1 * 2

+ 0 * 2

+ 1 * 2

+ 0 * 2

= 64 + 8 + 2 = 74

. This

can be generalized into an easy way to do this conversion. To convert from binary to decimal

put the 2

value of each bit over the bits in the binary number and add the values which are 1, as

in the example below:

64 32 16 8 4 2 1. .......

1001010

= 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 = 64 + 8 + 2 = 74

Chapter 1.2. 2 Converting Decimal to Binary using Binary Powers

Two ways to convert decimal number to binary numbers are presented here. The first is easy to

explain, but harder to implement. The second is a cleaner algorithm, but why the algorithm

works is less intuitive.

The first way to convert a number from decimal to binary is to see if a power of 2 is present in

the number. For example, consider the number 433. We know that there is no 2

(512) value in

433, but there is one value of 2

(or 256). So in the 9th digit of the base 2 number we would put

a 1, and subtract that 256 from the value of 433.

433 - 256 = 177

Next check if there is a 2

(128) value in the number. There is, so add that bit to our string and

subtract 128 from the result.

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