Linux 文件系统层次结构标准详解

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"Linux 文件系统层次结构" Linux 文件系统层次结构（Linux Filesystem Hierarchy）是 Linux 操作系统中用于组织和管理文件与目录的标准布局。这个标准由 FSSTND（Filesystem Hierarchy Standard）定义，旨在提高不同 Linux 发行版之间文件系统的互操作性、系统管理工具、开发工具和脚本的效率，以及统一文档的格式。 FSSTND v2.3 最终版本发布于 2004 年 1 月 29 日，它规定了各个类型的文件和目录应放置在文件系统中的哪个位置，以确保一致性。这一标准对于所有 Linux 社区成员都是开放且独立于特定发行版的，它的实施使得在不同 Linux 系统间共享和迁移应用变得更加便捷。以下是一些主要的 Linux 文件系统目录及其用途： 1. `/` 根目录：所有其他目录的起点，包含整个文件系统树。 2. `/bin`：包含基本的用户命令，这些命令在单用户模式或启动时是必需的。 3. `/boot`：存放引导加载器（如 GRUB）所需的文件，包括内核映像和启动配置。 4. `/dev`：设备文件的存放地，表示硬件设备或软件设备。 5. `/etc`：系统配置文件，如服务配置、用户和组设置等。 6. `/home`：普通用户的个人目录，存储用户的文件和设置。 7. `/lib`：存放系统运行所需的库文件，支持 `/bin` 和 `/sbin` 中的程序。 8. `/media`：挂载临时文件系统的地方，如CD-ROM、USB驱动器等。 9. `/mnt`：传统上用于临时挂载其他文件系统，但在现代系统中，通常使用 `/media`。 10. `/opt`：添加的可选应用程序和软件包的存储位置。 11. `/proc`：虚拟文件系统，提供对进程和系统状态的访问。 12. `/root`：系统管理员（root 用户）的主目录。 13. `/sbin`：系统管理命令，一般只供 root 使用。 14. `/srv`：存放服务数据，如网站内容、FTP 文件等。 15. `/sys`：另一个虚拟文件系统，提供对系统硬件和内核状态的访问。 16. `/tmp`：临时文件存储，系统重启时会被清除。 17. `/usr`：包含系统用户命令、库、文档和多用户应用程序。 18. `/var`：存储经常变化的数据，如日志文件、缓存、邮件等。通过遵循这样的层次结构，Linux 系统能更好地保持整洁和有序，同时简化了维护和故障排查。FSSTND 的实施确保了开发者、管理员和用户都能在一个统一的环境中工作，促进了 Linux 生态系统的协同和兼容性。

PS/2 mouse connection (mice, keyboards).

/dev/lp0 (First printer port, LPT1)

First parallel port (printers, scanners, etc).

/dev/dsp (First audio device)

The name DSP comes from the term digital signal processor, a specialized processor chip optimized

for digital signal analysis. Sound cards may use a dedicated DSP chip, or may implement the

functions with a number of discrete devices. Other terms that may be used for this device are digitized

voice and PCM.

/dev/usb (USB Devices)

This subdirectory contains most of the USB device nodes. Device name allocations are fairly

simplistic so no elaboration is be necessary.

/dev/sda (C:\, SCSI device)

First SCSI device (HDD, Memory Sticks, external mass storage devices such as CD−ROM drives on

laptops, etc).

/dev/scd (D:\, SCSI CD−ROM device)

First SCSI CD−ROM device.

/dev/js0 (Standard gameport joystick)

First joystick device.

Devices are defined by type, such as 'block' or 'character', and 'major' and 'minor' number. The major number

is used to categorize a device and the minor number is used to identify a specific device type. For example, all

IDE device connected to the primary controller have a major number of 3. Master and slave devices, as well

as individual partitions are further defined by the use of minor numbers. These are the two numbers precede

the date in the following display:

# ls −l /dev/hd*

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 0 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 1 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda1

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 10 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda10

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 11 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda11

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 12 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda12

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 13 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda13

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 14 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda14

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 15 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda15

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 16 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda16

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 17 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda17

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 18 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda18

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 19 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda19

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 2 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda2

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 20 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda20

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 3 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda3

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 4 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda4

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 5 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda5

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 6 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda6

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 7 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda7

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 8 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda8

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 9 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda9

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 64 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 65 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb1

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 74 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb10

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 75 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb11

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 76 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb12

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 77 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb13

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 78 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb14

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 79 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb15

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Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 13

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 80 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb16

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 81 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb17

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 82 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb18

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 83 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb19

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 66 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb2

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 84 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb20

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 67 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb3

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 68 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb4

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 69 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb5

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 70 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb6

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 71 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb7

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 72 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb8

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 73 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb9

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 22, 0 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdc

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 22, 64 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdd

The major number for both hda and hdb devices is 3. Of course, the minor number changes for each specific

partition. The definition of each major number category can be examined by looking at the contents of the

/usr/src/linux/include/linux/major.h file. The devices.txt also documents major and minor numbers. It is

located in the /usr/src/linux/Documentation directory. This file defines the major numbers. Almost all files

devices are created by default at the install time. However, you can always create a device using the mknod

command or the MAKEDEV script which is located in the /dev directory itself. Devices can be created with

this utility by supplying the device to be created, the device type (block or character) and the major and minor

numbers. For example, let's say you have accidentally deleted /dev/ttyS0 (COM1 under Windows), it can be

recreated using the following command

# mknod ttyS0 c 4 64

For those of us who are rather lazy you can simply run the MAKEDEV script as such

# MAKEDEV *

which will create all devices known.

If is possible that /dev may also contain a MAKEDEV.local for the creation of any local device files.

In general and as required by the FSSTND, MAKEDEV will have provisions for creating any device that may

be found on the system, not just those that a particular implementation installs.

For those of you who are wondering why Linux is using such a primitive system to reference devices its

because we haven't been able to devise a sufficiently sophisticated mechanism which provides enough

advantages over the current system in order to achieve widespread adoption.

To date (as of kernel version 2.4), the best attempt has been made by Richard Gooch of the CSIRO. It's called

devfsd and has been a part of the kernel for a number of years now. It has been sanctioned by the kernel

developers and Linus himself and details of its implementation can be found at

/usr/src/linux/Documentation/filesystems/devfs/README. Below is an excerpt from this document.

Devfs is an alternative to "real" character and block special devices on your root filesystem. Kernel device

drivers can register devices by name rather than major and minor numbers. These devices will appear in devfs

automatically, with whatever default ownership and protection the driver specified. A daemon (devfsd) can be

used to override these defaults. Devfs has been in the kernel since 2.3.46.

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 14

NOTE that devfs is entirely optional. If you prefer the old disc−based device nodes, then simply leave

CONFIG_DEVFS_FS=n (the default). In this case, nothing will change. ALSO NOTE that if you do enable

devfs, the defaults are such that full compatibility is maintained with the old devices names.

There are two aspects to devfs: one is the underlying device namespace, which is a namespace just like any

mounted filesystem. The other aspect is the filesystem code which provides a view of the device namespace.

The reason I make a distinction is because devfs can be mounted many times, with each mount showing the

same device namespace. Changes made are global to all mounted devfs filesystems. Also, because the devfs

namespace exists without any devfs mounts, you can easily mount the root filesystem by referring to an entry

in the devfs namespace.

The cost of devfs is a small increase in kernel code size and memory usage. About 7 pages of code (some of

that in __init sections) and 72 bytes for each entry in the namespace. A modest system has only a couple of

hundred device entries, so this costs a few more pages. Compare this with the suggestion to put /dev on a

ramdisc.

On a typical machine, the cost is under 0.2 percent. On a modest system with 64 MBytes of RAM, the cost is

under 0.1 percent. The accusations of "bloatware" levelled at devfs are not justified.

As of kernel version 2.6, devfs has been marked obsolete and has now been replaced by udev. A system very

similar (at least from a the end user's point of view) to devfs but which works entirely in userspace. An

overview of udev can be found at

http://www.kroah.com/linux/talks/ols_2003_udev_paper/Reprint−Kroah−Hartman−OLS2003.pdf

1.6. /etc

This is the nerve center of your system, it contains all system related configuration files in here or in its

sub−directories. A "configuration file" is defined as a local file used to control the operation of a program; it

must be static and cannot be an executable binary. For this reason, it's a good idea to backup this directory

regularly. It will definitely save you a lot of re−configuration later if you re−install or lose your current

installation. Normally, no binaries should be or are located here.

/etc/X11/

This directory tree contains all the configuration files for the X Window System. Users should note

that many of the files located in this directory are actually symbolic links to the /usr/X11R6 directory

tree. Thus, the presence of these files in these locations can not be certain.

/etc/X11/XF86Config, /etc/X11/XF86Config−4

The 'X' configuration file. Most modern distributions possess hardware autodetection systems that

enable automatic creation of a valid file. Should autodetection fail a configuration file can also be

created manually provided that you have sufficient knowledge about your system. It would be

considered prudent not to attempt to type out a file from beginning to end. Rather, use common

configuration utilities such as xf86config, XF86Setup and xf86cfg to create a workable template.

Then, using suitable documentation commence optimization through intuition and/or trial and error.

Options that can be configured via this file include X modules to be loaded on startup, keyboard,

mouse, monitor and graphic chipset type. Often, commercial distributions will include their own X

configuration utilities such as XDrake on Mandrake and also Xconfiguration on Redhat. Below is a

sample X configuration file from the reference system

### BEGIN DEBCONF SECTION

# XF86Config−4 (XFree86 server configuration file) generated by dexconf, the

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 15

# Debian X Configuration tool, using values from the debconf database.

# Edit this file with caution, and see the XF86Config−4 manual page.

# (Type "man XF86Config−4" at the shell prompt.)

# If you want your changes to this file preserved by dexconf, only

# make changes

# before the "### BEGIN DEBCONF SECTION" line above, and/or after the

# "### END DEBCONF SECTION" line below.

# To change things within the debconf section, run the command:

# dpkg−reconfigure xserver−xfree86

# as root. Also see "How do I add custom sections to a dexconf−

# generated

# XF86Config or XF86Config−4 file?" in /usr/share/doc/xfree86−

# common/FAQ.gz.

Section "Files"

FontPath "unix/:7100"

# local font server

# if the local font server has problems,

# we can fall back on these

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/misc"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/100dpi/:unscaled"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/75dpi/:unscaled"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/Type1"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/Speedo"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/100dpi"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/75dpi"

EndSection

Section "Module"

Load "GLcore"

Load "bitmap"

Load "dbe"

Load "ddc"

Load "dri"

Load "extmod"

Load "freetype"

Load "glx"

Load "int10"

Load "pex5"

Load "record"

Load "speedo"

Load "type1"

Load "vbe"

Load "xie"

EndSection

Section "InputDevice"

Identifier "Generic Keyboard"

Driver "keyboard"

Option "CoreKeyboard"

Option "XkbRules" "xfree86"

Option "XkbModel" "pc104"

Option "XkbLayout" "us"

EndSection

Section "InputDevice"

Identifier "Configured Mouse"

Driver "mouse"

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Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 16

Option "CorePointer"

Option "Device" "/dev/psaux"

Option "Protocol" "NetMousePS/2"

Option "Emulate3Buttons" "true"

Option "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"

EndSection

Section "InputDevice"

Identifier "Generic Mouse"

Driver "mouse"

Option "SendCoreEvents" "true"

Option "Device" "/dev/input/mice"

Option "Protocol" "ImPS/2"

Option "Emulate3Buttons" "true"

Option "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"

EndSection

Section "Device"

Identifier "Generic Video Card"

Driver "nv"

# Option "UseFBDev" "true"

Option "UseFBDev" "false"

EndSection

Section "Monitor"

Identifier "Generic Monitor"

HorizSync 30−38

VertRefresh 43−95

Option "DPMS"

EndSection

Section "Screen"

Identifier "Default Screen"

Device "Generic Video Card"

Monitor "Generic Monitor"

DefaultDepth 16

SubSection "Display"

Depth 1

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 4

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 8

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 15

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 16

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 24

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

EndSection

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 17

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