Apache安全指南：全面保护你的Web服务器

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"Apache Security - The Complete Guide to Securing Your Apache Web Server" Apache Security是由Ivan Ristić编写的，这是一本全面指南，专注于保护和加固Apache Web服务器的安全。本书首次出版于2005年，2010年进行了数字重印并更新至修订版200。Feisty Duck Limited是出版商，该书还经过了Rich Bowen和Anton Chuvakin的技术审查。本书旨在帮助读者理解并实施一系列措施，以确保Apache HTTP服务器的安全运行。在Apache Web服务器的管理中，安全是至关重要的，因为它是互联网上最广泛使用的HTTP服务器软件之一，因此成为黑客攻击的常见目标。通过这本书，读者将了解到如何： 1. **配置基础安全设置**：了解如何正确配置Apache的安装，包括设置防火墙规则、选择合适的模块以及确保服务器只响应预期的请求。 2. **身份验证和授权**：学习使用不同的认证机制（如Basic Auth、Digest Auth、SSL Client Certificates等）来验证用户，并使用访问控制指令（如Allow、Deny、Order等）来限制对特定资源的访问。 3. **加密通信**：探讨如何使用SSL/TLS协议来加密服务器与客户端之间的通信，防止数据在传输过程中被窃取或篡改。 4. **日志和监控**：理解如何配置和分析Apache的日志，以便及时发现潜在的安全威胁和异常活动。 5. **防范常见攻击**：涵盖防止常见的Web攻击技术，如跨站脚本(XSS)、跨站请求伪造(CSRF)、SQL注入等。 6. **安全模块和最佳实践**：介绍Apache的各种安全模块，如mod_security，以及如何利用它们增强服务器的安全性。同时，提供关于安全配置和维护的最佳实践。 7. **错误处理和信息披露**：学习如何避免在错误消息中泄露敏感信息，从而减少攻击者利用这些信息进行攻击的可能性。 8. **定期更新和维护**：强调定期更新Apache到最新版本的重要性，以获取最新的安全修复和性能改进。 9. **应急响应和事故处理**：提供在遭受攻击时的应对策略，包括如何识别攻击、记录证据以及恢复系统。 10. **合规性和审计**：讨论如何满足各种安全标准和法规，如PCI DSS，以及如何准备安全审计。 "Apache Security"是一本深入而实用的指南，对于任何负责管理和保护Apache Web服务器的人来说，都是不可或缺的参考资料。通过学习本书，读者能够提升自己的安全意识，更好地保护服务器免受网络威胁。

xiv Preface

This book does not assume previous knowledge of security. Security concepts relevant for

discussion are introduced and described wherever necessary. This is especially true for web

application security, which has its own chapter.

The main thing you should need to do your job in addition to this book, is the Apache web

server’s excellent reference documentation (http://httpd.apache.org/docs/).

The book should be especially useful for the following groups:

System administrators

Their job is to make web systems secure. This book presents detailed guidance that

enables system administrators to make informed decisions about which measures to

take to enhance security.

Programmers

They need to understand how the environment in which their applications are deployed

works. In addition, this book shows how certain programming errors lead to vulnera-

bilities and tells what to do to avoid such problems.

System architects

They need to know what system administrators and programmers do, and also need to

understand how system design decisions affect overall security.

Web security professionals

They need to understand how the Apache platform works in order to assess the security

of systems deployed on it.

Scope

At the time of this writing, two major Apache branches are widely used. The Apache 1.x branch

is the well-known, and well-tested, web server that led Apache to dominate the web server

market. The 2.0.x branch is the next-generation web server, but one that has suffered from

the success of the previous branch. Apache 1 is so good that many of its users do not intend

to upgrade in the near future. A third branch, 2.2.x will eventually become publicly available.

Although no one can ofﬁcially retire an older version, the new 2.2.x branch is a likely candidate

for a version to replace Apache 1.3.x. The Apache branches have few conﬁguration differences.

If you are not a programmer (meaning you do not develop modules to extend Apache), a

change from an older branch to a newer branch should be straightforward.

This book covers both current Apache branches. Wherever there are differences in the

conﬁguration for the two branches, such differences are explained. The 2.2.x branch is

conﬁgured in practically the same way as the 2.0.x branch, so when the new branch goes

ofﬁcially public, the book will apply to it equally well.

Many web security issues are directly related to the operating system Apache runs on. For most

of this book, your operating system is irrelevant. The advice I give applies no matter whether

Contents of This Book xv

you are running some Unix ﬂavor, Windows, or some other operating system. However, in

most cases I will assume you are running Apache on a Unix platform. Though Apache runs

well on Windows, Unix platforms offer another layer of conﬁguration options and security

features that make them a better choice for security-conscious deployments. Where examples

related to the operating system are given, they are typically shown for Linux. But such exam-

ples are in general very easy to translate to other Unix platforms and, if you are running a

different Unix platform, I trust you will have no problems with translation.

Contents of This Book

While doing research for the book, I discovered there are two types of people: those who read

books from cover to cover and those who only read those parts that are of immediate interest.

The book’s structure (12 chapters and 1 appendix) aims to satisfy both camps. When read

sequentially, the book examines how a secure system is built from the ground up, adding layer

upon layer of security. However, since every chapter was written to cover a single topic in its

entirety, you can read a few selected chapters and leave the rest for later. Make sure to read the

ﬁrst chapter, though, as it establishes the foundation for everything else.

Chapter 1, Apache Security Principles, presents essential security principles, security terms,

and a view of security as a continuous process. It goes on to discuss threat modeling, a tech-

nique used to analyze potential threats and establish defenses. The chapter ends with a dis-

cussion of three ways of looking at a web system (the user view, the network view, and the

Apache view), each designed to emphasize a different security aspect. This chapter is dedicat-

ed to the strategy of deploying a system that is created to be secure and that is kept secure

throughout its lifetime.

Chapter 2, Installation and Conﬁguration, gives comprehensive and detailed coverage of the

Apache installation and conﬁguration process, where the main goal is not to get up and run-

ning as quickly as possible but to create a secure installation on the ﬁrst try. Various hardening

techniques are presented along with discussions of the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Chapter 3, PHP, discusses PHP installation and conﬁguration, following the same style es-

tablished in Chapter 2. It begins with a discussion of and installation guidance for common

PHP deployment models (as an Apache module or as a CGI), continues with descriptions of

security-relevant conﬁguration options (such as the safe mode), and concludes with advanced

hardening techniques.

Chapter 4, SSL and TLS, discusses cryptography on a level sufﬁcient for the reader to make

informed decisions about it. The chapter ﬁrst establishes the reasons cryptography is needed,

then introduces SSL and discusses its strengths and weaknesses. Practical applications of SSL

for Apache are covered through descriptions and examples of the use of mod_ssl and OpenSSL.

This chapter also speciﬁes the procedures for functioning as a certiﬁcate authority, which is

required for high security installations.

xvi Preface

Chapter 5, Denial of Service Attacks, discusses some dangers of establishing a public presence

on the Internet. A denial of service attack is, arguably, one of the worst problems you can ex-

perience. The problems discussed here include network attacks, conﬁguration and program-

ming issues that can make you harm your own system, local (internal) attacks, weaknesses

of the Apache processing model, and trafﬁc spikes. This chapter describes what can happen,

and the actions you can take, before such attacks occur, to make your system more secure and

reduce the potential effects of such attacks. It also gives guidance regarding what to do if such

attacks still occur in spite of your efforts.

Chapter 6, Sharing Servers, discusses the problems that arise when common server resources

must be shared with people you may not trust. Resource sharing usually leads to giving other

people partial control of the web server. I present several ways to give partial control without

giving too much. The practical problems this chapter aims to solve are shared hosting, work-

ing with developers, and hosting in environments with large numbers of system users (e.g.,

students).

Chapter 7, Access Control, discusses the theory and practice of user identiﬁcation, authentica-

tion (verifying a user is allowed to access the system), and authorization (verifying a user is

allowed to access a particular resource). For Apache, this means coverage of HTTP-deﬁned

authentication protocols (Basic and Digest authentication), form-based and certiﬁcate-based

authentication, and network-level access control. The last part of the chapter discusses single

sign-on, where people can log in once and have access to several different resources.

Chapter 8, Logging and Monitoring, describes various ways Apache can be conﬁgured to ex-

tract interesting and relevant pieces of information, and record them for later analysis. Spe-

cialized logging modules, such as the ones that help detect problems that cause the server to

crash, are also covered. The chapter then addresses log collection, centralization, and analy-

sis. The end of the chapter covers operation monitoring, through log analysis in batch or re-

al-time. A complete example of using mod_status and RRDtool to monitor Apache is present-

ed.

Chapter 9, Infrastructure, discusses a variety of security issues related to the environment in

which the Apache web server exists. This chapter touches upon network security issues and

gives references to web sites and books in which the subject is covered in greater detail. I

also describe how the introduction of a reverse proxy concept into network design can serve

to enhance system security. Advanced (scalable) web architectures, often needed to securely

deploy high-trafﬁc systems, are also discussed here.

Chapter 10, Web Application Security, explains why creating safe web applications is difﬁcult,

and where mistakes are likely to happen. It gives guidance as to how these problems can be

solved. Understanding the issues surrounding web application security is essential to establish

an effective defense.

Online Companion xvii

Chapter 11, Web Security Assessment, establishes a set of security assessment procedures.

Black-box testing is presented for assessment from the outside. White-box and gray-box test-

ing procedures are described for assessment from the inside.

Chapter 12, Web Intrusion Detection, builds on the material presented in previous chapters to

introduce the concept of web intrusion detection. While the ﬁrst part of this chapter discusses

theory, the second part describes how Apache and mod_security can be used to establish a

fully functional open source web intrusion detection system.

Appendix A, Tools, describes some of the more useful web security tools that save time when

time is at a premium.

Online Companion

A book about technology cannot be complete without a companion web site. To fully appre-

ciate this book, you need to visit http://www.apachesecurity.net, where I am making the

relevant material available in electronic form. Some of the material available is:

• Conﬁguration data examples, which you can copy and paste to use directly in your

conﬁguration.

• The tools I wrote for the book, together with documentation and usage examples. Re-

quest new features, and I will add them whenever possible.

• The links to all resources mentioned in the book, grouped according to their appear-

ance in chapters. This will help you avoid retyping long links. I intend to maintain the

links in working order and to provide copies of resources, should they become unavail-

able elsewhere.

I hope to expand the companion web site into a useful Apache security resource with a life on

its own. Please help by sending your comments and your questions to the email address shown

on the web site. I look forward to receiving feedback and shaping the future book releases

according to other people’s experiences.

Conventions Used in This Book

Throughout this book certain stylistic conventions are followed. Once you are accustomed to

them, you will distinguish between comments, commands you need to type, values you need

to supply, and so forth.

In some cases, the typeface of the terms in the main text and in code examples will be differ-

ent. The details of what the different styles (italic, boldface, etc.) mean are described in the

following sections.

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