"2023计算机图形学：基于OpenGL和Java 第三版英文版简介"

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The third edition of "Introduction to Computer Graphics Using OpenGL and Java" provides a comprehensive introduction to the field of computer graphics, focusing on practical implementation using OpenGL and Java technologies. Written by Karsten Lehn, Merijam Gotzes, and Frank Klawonn, this book is designed for undergraduate students in computer science and related fields. This updated edition, published in 2023, covers the fundamental concepts of computer graphics, including 2D and 3D transformations, rasterization, shading, texture mapping, and more. The authors emphasize a hands-on approach, with numerous examples and exercises to help students develop their skills in graphics programming. The book is part of the "Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science" series, with Ian Mackie serving as the series editor. Advisory editors Samson Abramsky, Chris Hankin, and Mike Hinchey ensure the content is relevant and up-to-date, reflecting the latest advancements in the field. Throughout the book, readers will learn how to create interactive graphics applications using OpenGL and Java. Starting with the basics of graphics programming, the authors gradually introduce more advanced topics, such as lighting and shadows, animation, and virtual reality. By the end of the book, students will have a solid understanding of computer graphics principles and the ability to implement their own graphical applications. Overall, "Introduction to Computer Graphics Using OpenGL and Java" is a valuable resource for students seeking to delve into the world of computer graphics. With its practical approach, clear explanations, and hands-on exercises, this book equips readers with the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in this exciting and dynamic field. It is a must-have for anyone interested in learning about computer graphics and its practical applications.

Introduction

Computer graphics is the process of creating images using a computer. This process

is often referred to as graphical data processing. In this book, an image is understood

in an abstract sense. An image not only can represent a realistic scene from the

everyday world, but it can also be graphics such as histograms or pie charts, or the

graphical user interface of the software. In the following section, some application

ﬁelds of computer graphics are presented as examples to give an impression of the

range of tasks in this discipline. This is followed by explanations of the main steps

in computer graphics and an overview of how a rendering pipeline works using the

graphics pipeline of the Open Graphics Library (OpenGL).

Computer graphics belongs to the ﬁeld of visual computing. Visual computing,

also known as image informatics, deals with both image analysis (acquisition, pro-

cessing and analysis of image data) and image synthesis (production of images from

data). Visual computing is an amalgamation of individual merging ﬁelds such as

image processing, computer graphics, computer vision, human–machine interaction

and machine learning. Computer graphics is an essential part of image synthesis, just

as image processing is an essential part of image analysis. Therefore, in basic intro-

ductions to visual computing, the two disciplines of computer graphics and image

processing are taught together. This book also integrates solutions to image process-

ing problems, such as the reduction of aliasing in rasterisation or the representation

of object surfaces using textures.

Further links to computer graphics exist with neighbouring disciplines such

as computer-aided design/manufacturing (CAD/CAM), information visualisation,

scientiﬁc visualisation and augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) (see

Chap. 11).

K. Lehn et al., Introduction to Computer Graphics, Undergraduate Topics

in Computer Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28135-8_1

2 1 Introduction

1.1 Application Fields

Although graphical user interfaces (GUIs) are fundamentally an application area of

computer graphics, the basics of computer graphics now play a rather subordinate

role in this ﬁeld. On the one hand, there are standardised tools for the design and

programming of graphical user interfaces that abstract the technical processes, and

on the other hand, the focus is primarily on usability and user experience and thus

in the area of human–computer interaction.

In advertising and certain art forms, many images are now produced entirely

by computer. Artists rework or even alienate photographs using computer graphics

techniques.

Besides the generation and display of these rather abstract graphics, the main ap-

plication of computer graphics is in the ﬁeld of displaying realistic—not necessarily

real—images and image sequences. One such application is animated ﬁlms, which

are created entirely using computer graphics methods. The realistic rendering of wa-

ter, hair or fur is a challenge that can be achieved already in a reasonable amount of

time using sophisticated rendering systems.

For the very large amounts of data that are recorded in many areas of industry,

business and science, not only suitable methods for automatic analysis and evalua-

tion are required but also techniques for the visualisation of graphic presentations.

The ﬁeld of interactive analysis using visualisations is called visual analytics, which

belongs to the ﬁeld of information visualisation. These visualisations go far beyond

simple representations of function graphs, histograms or pie charts, which are already

accomplished by spreadsheet programs today. Such simple types of visualisations

are assigned to data visualisation. This involves the pure visualisation of raw data

without taking into account an additional relationship between the data. Data be-

comes information only through a relationship. Information visualisations include

two- or three-dimensional visualisations of high-dimensional data, problem-adapted

representations of the data [3,7,12,13] or special animations that show temporal

progressions of, for example, currents or weather phenomena. The interactive vi-

sualisation of this information and the subsequent analysis by the user generates

knowledge. The last step is assigned to visual analytics. Artiﬁcial intelligence tech-

niques can be applied in this context as well.

Classic applications come from the ﬁelds of computer-aided design (CAD) and

computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), which involve the design and construction

of objects such as vehicles or housings. The objects to be represented are designed

on the computer, just as in computer games or architectural design programs for

visualising real or planned buildings and landscapes. In these cases, the objects to be

designed, for example an extension to a house, are combined with already existing

objects in the computer. In the case of driving or ﬂight simulators, real cities or

landscapes have to be modelled with the computer.

Not only does the ability to model and visualise objects plays an important role in

computer graphics, but also the generation of realistic representations from measured

data. To generate such data, scanners are used that measure the depth information of

the surfaces of objects. Several calibrated cameras can also be used for this purpose,

1.1 Application Fields 3

from which three-dimensional information can be reconstructed. A very important

ﬁeld of application for these technologies is medical informatics [6]. In this area, for

example, three-dimensional visualisations of organs or bone structures are generated,

which are based on data that was partly obtained by various imaging procedures, such

as ultrasound, computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging.

The coupling of real data and images with computer graphics techniques is ex-

pected to increase in the future. Computer games allow navigating through scenes

and viewing a scene from different angles. Furthermore, 360-degree videos allow for

an all-around view of a scene. Such videos can be recorded using special camera ar-

rangements, such as omnidirectional cameras. These are spherical objects equipped

with several cameras that take pictures in different directions.

In most ﬁlms in the entertainment industry, the viewer can only watch a scene

from a ﬁxed angle. The basic techniques for self-selection of the viewer position are

already in place [4]. However, this requires scenes to be recorded simultaneously

from multiple perspectives and intelligent playback devices. In this case, the viewer

must not be bound to the positions of the cameras, but can move to any viewpoint. The

corresponding representation of the scene is calculated from the information provided

by the individual cameras. For this purpose, techniques of computer graphics, which

serve the synthesis of images, have to be combined with procedures from image

processing, which deal with the analysis of the recorded images [5].

Other important ﬁelds of application of computer graphics are virtual reality (VR)

and augmented reality (AR). In virtual reality, the aim is to create an immersion for

the user through the appropriate stimulation of as many senses as possible, which

leads to the perception of really being in the artiﬁcially generated world. This desired

psychological state is called presence. This results in a wide range of possible appli-

cations, of which only a few are mentioned as examples here. Virtual realities can

be used in architectural and interior simulations, for telepresence or learning appli-

cations in a wide variety of ﬁelds. Psychotherapeutic applications to control phobia

(confrontation therapy) or applications to create empathy by a user putting himself

in the situation of another person are also possible and promising applications.

Through the use of augmented reality technologies, real perception is enriched

by additional information. Here, too, there are many possible applications, of which

only a few are mentioned. Before a purchase, products can be selected that ﬁt perfectly

into their intended environment, for example, the new chest of drawers in the living

room. Likewise, clothes can be adapted to individual styles in augmented reality.

Learning applications, for example a virtual city or museum guide, are just as pos-

sible as assembly aids in factories or additional information for the maintenance of

complex installations or devices, for example elevators or vehicles. Conferences can

be supplemented by virtual avatars of participants in remote locations. In medicine,

for the planning of an operation or during an operation, images can be projected

precisely onto the body to be operated on as supplementary information, which was

or is generated before or during the operation by imaging techniques.

As these examples show, computer graphics applications can be distinguished

according to whether interaction with the application is required or not. For the pro-

duction of advertising images or classic animated ﬁlms, for example, no interaction

4 1 Introduction

is intended, so elaborate computer graphics processes can be used for the most real-

istic representation possible. In the ﬁlm industry, entire computer farms are used to

calculate realistic computer graphics for a feature-length animated ﬁlm, sometimes

over a period of months.

However, many computer graphics applications are interactive, such as applica-

tions from the ﬁelds of virtual or augmented reality. This results in requirements for

the response time to generate a computer graphic. For ﬂight or vehicle simulators,

which are used for the training of pilots or train drivers, these response times must

be strictly adhered to in order to be able to represent scenarios that create a realistic

behaviour of the vehicle. Therefore, in computer graphics it is important to have

methods that generate realistic representations as efﬁciently as possible and do not

necessarily calculate all the details of a scene. For professional ﬂight simulators or

virtual reality installations, high-performance computer clusters or entire computer

farms are potentially available. However, this is not the case for computer games or

augmented reality applications for portable devices, even though in these cases the

available computing power is constantly growing. For this reason, simple, efﬁcient

models and methods of computer graphics, which have been known for a long time,

are in use today to create interactive computer graphics applications.

1.2 From the Real Scene to the Computer Generated Image

From the example applications presented in Sect. 1.1, the different tasks to be solved

in computer graphics can be derived. Figure 1.1 shows the rough steps needed to get

from a real or virtual scene to a perspective image. First, the objects of the scene must

be replicated as computer models. This is usually done with a modelling tool. This

replication is generally only an approximation of the objects in the scene. Depending

on the effort to be expended and the modelling types available, the objects can be

approximated more or less well. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.1a, where a house was

modelled by two simple geometric shapes. The deciduous trees consist of a cylinder

and a sphere. The coniferous trees are composed of a cylinder and three intersecting

cones.

One of the ﬁrst steps in graphics processing is to determine the viewer location,

also known as the camera position or eye point. Figure 1.1b shows the modelled

scene as seen by a viewer standing at some distance in front of the house.

The modelled objects usually cover a much larger area than what is visible to the

viewer. For example, several building complexes with surrounding gardens could be

modelled, through which the viewer can move. If the viewer is standing in a speciﬁc

room of the building, or is at a speciﬁc location in the scene looking in a speciﬁc

direction, then most of the modelled objects are not in the viewer’s ﬁeld of view

and can be disregarded in the rendering of the scene. The example scene in Fig. 1.1

consists of a house and four trees, which should not be visible at the same time.

This is represented in Fig. 1.1c by the three-dimensional area marked by lines. If a

perspective projection is assumed, then this area has the shape of a frustum (truncated

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