计算机组织与架构基础

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"计算机组织与架构" 《计算机组织与架构》是最新版的一本专著，旨在为学生提供构建未来计算机架构所需的建筑框架和基础知识。本书由Mostafa Abd-El-Barr（来自国王费哈德石油与矿业大学）和Hesham El-Rewini（南卫理公会大学）共同撰写，并在约翰威利父子出版公司发行，属于并行和分布式计算系列的一部分，由Albert Y. Zomaya担任系列编辑。计算机组织与架构是理解计算机系统核心原理的关键领域。它涵盖了从微电子学的基本概念到高级系统设计的广泛主题。这包括处理器架构、内存系统、输入输出（I/O）机制、总线结构以及计算机系统的并行和分布式计算方面。这些基本概念是现代计算机科学和工程的基础，对于理解和优化计算机性能至关重要。书中可能涉及的几个关键知识点包括： 1. **处理器架构**：讨论了从简单单核处理器到多核和多处理器系统的设计。这包括指令集架构（ISA）、微架构、流水线技术、超标量设计、动态调度和分支预测等。 2. **内存系统**：深入研究了层次存储结构，如高速缓存（Cache）、主存和磁盘存储。还包括内存访问时间、替换策略和缓存一致性问题。 3. **I/O系统**：探讨了设备控制器、中断处理、DMA（直接内存访问）以及与外设通信的各种接口标准，如USB、PCIe等。 4. **并行与分布式计算**：介绍并行计算的概念，如SIMD（单指令多数据）和MIMD（多指令多数据）架构，以及分布式系统的原理，如进程间通信、负载均衡和容错机制。 5. **编译器优化**：解释了编译器如何通过诸如指令级并行、循环展开和代码重构等技术来提升程序性能。 6. **计算机性能度量**：涵盖了性能评估的指标，如 MIPS（每秒百万指令数）、MFLOPS（每秒百万浮点运算）和功耗效率。 7. **虚拟化技术**：讨论了虚拟机和容器的概念，以及它们在资源管理和隔离中的应用。 8. **最新发展趋势**：可能包括GPU计算、云计算、物联网（IoT）设备的架构，以及量子计算和神经形态计算等前沿领域的简介。通过学习这些内容，学生将能够理解计算机硬件如何与软件交互，以及如何设计和优化系统以满足特定性能需求。这不仅对计算机科学家和工程师，也对任何希望深入理解计算机工作原理的人都是宝贵的知识资源。

I/O plays a crucial role in any modern computer system. A clear understanding

and appreciation of the fundamentals of I/O operations, devices, and interfaces are

of great importance. The focus of Chapter 8 is a study on input – outpu t (I/O) design

and organization. We cover the basic issues related to programmed and Interrupt-

driven I/O. The interrupt architecture in real machines such as 8086 and

MC9328MX1/MXL AITC are explained. This is followed by a detailed discussion

on Direct Memory Access (DMA), busses (synchronous and asynchronous), and

arbitration schemes. Our coverage in Chapter 8 concludes with a discussion on

I/O interfaces.

There exists two basic techniques to increase the instruction execution rate of a

processor. These are: to increase the clock rate, thus decreasing the instruction

execution time, or alternatively to increase the number of instructions that can be

executed simultaneously. Pipelining and instruction-level parallelism are examples

of the latter technique. Pipelining is the focus of the discussion provided in Chapter

9. The idea is to have more than one instruction being processed by the processor at

the same time. This can be achieved by dividing the execution of an instruction

among a number of sub-units (stages), each performing part of the required oper-

ations, i.e., instruction fetch, instruction decode, operand fetch, instruction

execution, and store of results. Performance measures of a pipeline processor are

introduced. The main issues contributing to instruction pipeline hazards are dis-

cussed and some possible solutions are introduced. In addition, we present the con-

cept of arithmetic pipelining together with the problems involved in designing such

pipeline. Our coverage concludes with a review of two pipeline processors, i.e., the

ARM 1026EJ-S and the UltraSPARC-III.

Chapter 10 is dedicated to a study of Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISCs).

These machines represent a noticeable shift in computer architecture paradigm. The

RISC paradigm emphasizes the enhancement of computer architectures with the

resources needed to make the execution of the most frequent and the most time-

consuming operations most efﬁcient. RISC-based machines are characterized by

a number of common features, such as, simple and reduced instruction set, ﬁxed

instruction format, one instruction per machine cycle, pipeline instruction fetch/exe-

cute units, ample number of general purpose registers (or alternatively optimized

compiler code generation), Load/Store memory operations, and hardwired control

unit design. Our coverage in this chapter starts with a discussion on the evolution

of RISC architectures and the studies that led to their introduction. Overlapped Reg-

ister Windows, an essential concept in the RISC development, is also discussed. We

show the application of the basic RISC principles in machines such as the Berkeley

RISC, the Stanford MIPS, the Compaq Alpha, and the SUN UltraSparc.

Having covered the essential issues in the design and analysis of uniprocessors

and pointing out the main limitations of a single stream machine, we provide an

introduction to the basic concepts related to multiprocessors in Chapter 11. Here

a number of processors (two or more) are connected in a manner that allows them

to share the simultaneous execution of a single task. The main advantage for

using multiprocessors is the creation of powerful com puters by connecting many

existing smaller ones. In addition, a multiprocessor consisting of a number of

PREFACE xiii

single uniprocessors is expected to be more cost effective than building a high-

performance single processor. We present a number of different topologies used

for interconnecting multiple processors, different classiﬁcation schemes, and a

topology-based taxonomy for interconnection networ ks. Two memory-organization

schemes for MIMD (multiple instruction multiple data ) multiprocessors, i.e., Shared

Memory and Message Passing, are also introduced. Our coverage in this chapter

ends with a touch on the analysis and performance metrics for multiprocessors.

Interested readers are referred to more elaborate discussions on multiprocessors in

our book entitled Advanced Computer Architectures and Parallel Processing,

John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2005.

From the above chapter-by-chapter review of the topics covered in the book, it

should be clear that the chapt ers of the book are, to a great extent, self-containe d

and inclusive. We believe that such an approach should help course instructors to

selectively choose the set of chapters suitable for the targeted curriculum. However,

our experience indicates that the group of chapters consi sting of Chapters 1 to 5 and

8 is typically suitable for a junior level course on Computer Organization and

Assembly Language for Computer Science, Computer Engineering, and Electrical

Engineering students. The group of chapters consisting of Chapters 1, 6, 7, 9–11

is typi cally suitable for a senior level course on Computer Architecture. Practicing

engineers and scientists will ﬁnd it feasible to selectively consult the material cov-

ered in individual chapters and/or groups of chapters as indicated in the chapter-by-

chapter review. For example, to ﬁnd more about memory system design, interested

readers may consult the sequence consisting of Chapters 6 and 7.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to express our thanks and appreciation to a number of people who

have helped in the preparati on of this book. Students in our Computer Organization

and Computer Architecture courses at the University of Saskatchewan (UofS),

SMU, KFUPM, and Kuwait University have used drafts of different chapters and

provided us with useful feedback and comments that led to the improvement of

the presentation of the material in the book; to them we are thankful. Our colleagues

Donald Evan, Fatih Kocan, Peter Seidel, Mitch Thornton, A. Naseer, Habib

Ammari, and Hakki Cankaya offered constructive comments and excellent sugges-

tions that led to noticeable improveme nt in the style and presentation of the book

material. We are indebted to the anonymous reviewers arranged by John Wiley

for their suggestions and corrections. Special thanks to Albert Y. Zoma ya, the

series editor and to Val Moliere, Kirsten Rohstedt, and Christine Punzo of John

Wiley for their help in making this book a reality. Of course, responsibility for

errors and inconsistencies rests with us. Finally, and most of all, we want to thank

our families for their patience and support during the writing of this book.

OSTAFA ABD-EL-BARR

HESHAM EL-REWINI

xiv PREFACE

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Computer Systems

The technological advances witnessed in the computer industry are the result of a

long chain of immense and successful efforts made by two major forces. These

are the academia, represented by university research centers, and the industry,

represented by computer companies. It is, however, fair to say that the current tech-

nological advances in the computer industry owe their inception to university

research centers. In order to appreciate the current technol ogical advances in the

computer industry, one has to trace back through the history of computers and

their development. The objective of such historical review is to understa nd the

factors affecting computing as we know it today and hopefully to forecast the

future of computation. A great majority of the computers of our daily use are

known as general purpose machines. These are machines that are built with no

speciﬁc application in mind, but rather are capable of performing computation

needed by a diversity of applications. These machines are to be distinguished

from those built to serve (tailored to) speciﬁc applications. The latter are known

as special purpose machines. A brief historical background is given in Section 1.1.

Computer systems have conventional ly been deﬁned through their interfaces at

a number of layered abstraction levels, each providing functional support to its pre-

decessor. Included among the levels are the application programs, the high-level

languages, and the set of machine instructions. Based on the interface between

different levels of the system, a number of computer architectures can be deﬁned.

The interface between the application programs and a high-level language is

referred to as a language architecture. The instruction set architecture deﬁnes the

interface between the basic machine instruction set and the runtime and I/O control.

A different deﬁnition of computer architecture is built on four basic viewpoints.

These are the structure, the organization, the implementation, and the performance.

In this deﬁnition, the structure deﬁnes the interconnection of various hardware com-

ponents, the organization deﬁnes the dynamic interplay and management of the

various components, the implementation deﬁnes the detailed design of hardware

components, and the performance speciﬁes the behavior of the computer system.

Architectural development and styles are covered in Section 1.2.

Fundamentals of Computer Organization and Architecture, by M. Abd-El-Barr and H. El-Rewini

ISBN 0-471-46741-3 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A number of technological developments are presented in Section 1.3. Our discus-

sion in this chapter concludes with a detailed coverage of CPU performance measures.

1.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In this section, we would like to provide a historical background on the evolution of

cornerstone ideas in the computing industry. We should emphasize at the outset that

the effort to build computers has not originated at one single place. There is every

reason for us to believe that attempts to build the ﬁrst computer existed in different

geographically distributed places. We also ﬁrmly believe that building a computer

requires teamwork. Th erefore, whe n some people attribute a machine to the name

of a single researcher, what they actually mean is that such researcher may have

led the team who introduced the machine. We, therefore, see it more appropriate

to mention the machine and the place it was ﬁrst introduced without linking that

to a speciﬁc name. We believe that such an approach is fair and should eliminate

any controversy about researchers and their names.

It is probably fair to say that the ﬁrst program-controlled (m echanical) computer

ever build was the Z1 (1938). This was followed in 1939 by the Z2 as the ﬁrst oper-

ational program-controlled computer with ﬁxed-point arithmetic. However, the ﬁrst

recorded university-based attempt to build a computer originated on Iowa State

University campus in the early 1940s. Researchers on that campus were able to

build a small-scale special-purpose electronic computer. However, that computer

was never completely operational. Just about the same time a complete design of

a fully functional programmable special-purpose machine, the Z3, was reported in

Germany in 1941. It appears that the lack of funding prevented such design from

being implemented. History recorded that while these two attempts were in progress,

researchers from different parts of the world had opportunities to gain ﬁrst-hand

experience through their visits to the laboratories and institutes carrying out the

work. It is assumed that such ﬁrst-hand visits and interchange of ideas enabled

the visitors to embark on similar projects in their own laboratories back home.

As far as general-purpose machines are concerned, the University of Pennsylvania

is recorded to have hosted the building of the Electronic Numerical Integrator and

Calculator (ENIAC) machine in 1944. It was the ﬁrst operational general-purpose

machine built using vacuum tubes. The machine was primarily built to help compute

artillery ﬁring tables during World War II. It was programmable through manual set-

ting of switches and plugging of cables. The machine was slow by today’s standard,

with a limited amount of storage and primitive programmability. An improved version

of the ENIAC was proposed on the same campus. The improved version of the

ENIAC, called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC),

was an attempt to improve the way programs are entered and explore the concept

of stored programs. It was not until 1952 that the EDVAC project was completed.

Inspired by the ideas implemented in the ENIAC, researchers at the Institute for

Advanced Study (IAS) at Princeton built (in 1946) the IAS machine, which was

about 10 times faster than the ENIAC.

2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS

In 1946 and while the EDVAC project was in progress, a similar project was

initiated at Cambridge University. The project was to build a stored-program com-

puter, known as the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). It

was in 1949 that the EDSAC became the world’s ﬁrst full-scale, stored-program,

fully operational computer. A spin-off of the EDSAC resulted in a series of mac hines

introduced at Harvard. The series consisted of MARK I, II, III, and IV. The latter

two machines introduced the concept of separate memories for instructions and

data. The term Harvard Architecture was given to such machines to indicate the

use of separate memories. It should be noted that the term Harvard Architecture

is used today to describe machines with separate cache for instructions and data.

The ﬁrst general-purpose commercial computer, the UNIVersal Automatic

Computer (UNIVAC I), was on the market by the middle of 1951. It represented an

improvement over the BINAC, which was built in 1949. IBM announced its ﬁrst com-

puter, the IBM701, in 1952. The early 1950s witnessed a slowdown in the computer

industry. In 1964 IBM announced a line of products under the name IBM 360 series.

The series included a number of models that varied in price and performance. This led

Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) to introduce the ﬁrst minicomputer, the PDP-8.

It was considered a remarkably low-cost machine. Intel introduced the ﬁrst micropro-

cessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971. The world witnessed the birth of the ﬁrst personal

computer (PC) in 1977 when Apple computer series were ﬁrst introduced. In 1977

the world also witnessed the introduction of the VAX-11/780 by DEC. Intel followed

suit by introducing the ﬁrst of the most popular microprocessor, the 80  86 series.

Personal computers, which were introduced in 1977 by Altair, Processor

Technology, North Star, Tandy, Commodore, Apple, and many others, enhanc ed

the productivity of end-users in numerous departments. Personal computers from

Compaq, Apple, IBM, Dell, and many others, soon became pervasive, and changed

the face of computing.

In parallel with small-scale machines, supercomputers were coming into play.

The ﬁrst such supercomputer, the CDC 6600, was introduced in 1961 by Control

Data Corporation. Cray Research Corporation introduced the best cost/performance

supercomputer, the Cray-1, in 1976.

The 1980s and 1990s witnessed the introduction of many commercial parallel

computers with multiple processors. They can generally be classiﬁed into two

main categories: (1) shared memory and (2) distributed memory systems. The

number of processors in a single machine ranged from several in a shared

memory computer to hundreds of thousands in a massively parallel system.

Examples of parallel computers during this era include Sequent Symmetry, Intel

iPSC, nCUBE, Intel Paragon, Thinking Machines (CM-2, CM-5), MsPar (MP),

Fujitsu (VPP500), and others.

One of the clear trends in computing is the substitution of centralized servers by

networks of computers. These networks connect inexpensive, powerful desktop

machines to form unequaled computing power. Local area networks (LAN) of

powerful personal com puters and workstations began to replace mainframes and

minis by 1990. These individual desktop computers were soon to be connected

into larger complexes of computing by wide area networks (WAN).

1.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 3

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