操作系统设计与实现：MINIX历史与概念解析

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"Prentice.Hall.Operating.Systems.Design.and.Implementation" 本书是关于操作系统设计与实现的专业著作，深入探讨了操作系统的各个方面。作者通过历史背景、基本概念、系统结构等多个角度来阐述操作系统的核心原理。操作系统是计算机系统的核心组件，它作为硬件的抽象层，提供了一个供用户和应用程序使用的“扩展机器”。它还是资源的管理者，负责调度、分配和协调计算机的各种资源，如CPU时间、内存、输入/输出设备以及文件存储等。在书中，作者首先回顾了操作系统的历史发展，从第一代真空管和插板时代的简单控制系统，到第二代晶体管和批处理系统，再到第三代集成电路和多编程技术的引入，以及第四代个人计算机的普及。特别提到了MINIX系统的发展，MINIX是一个小型的类UNIX操作系统，对于理解操作系统的工作原理具有重要意义。接着，书中介绍了操作系统的基本概念。其中，进程是执行中的程序实例，它们在内存中占有空间并进行独立的计算。文件则是数据的持久化存储单元，操作系统提供了文件管理系统来创建、读取、修改和删除文件。Shell是用户与操作系统交互的界面，通过命令行执行系统命令。系统调用是操作系统提供的接口，包括用于进程管理、信号传递、文件和目录操作、保护机制以及时间管理等功能。操作系统的设计有多种结构模式，如单体系统、分层系统、虚拟机模型和客户端-服务器模型。每种结构都有其优缺点，适应不同的应用场景和需求。书的后续章节将更深入地讨论进程（包括进程状态、同步、通信）、内存管理、调度策略、I/O系统、文件系统以及安全性与并发控制等内容。最后，作者还会概述全书的结构和主要内容，帮助读者建立对整个操作系统领域的全面理解。这本书不仅适合操作系统研究者和开发者，也对计算机科学的学生和IT专业人士有很高的参考价值，能够帮助他们深入理解操作系统的设计思想和实现技术。

INTRODUCTION

CHAP.

data

following

it.

Finally,

the

$END

card

marked the end

the

job.

These

prim-

itive control cards

were

the forerunners of modern

job

control

languages

andcom-

mand interpreters.

SEND

Data

for

program

Fortran

Program

MARVIN

TANENBAUM

Figure

1-3.

Structure

typical

FMS

job.

Large

second-generatian

computers

were

used mostly for scientific

and

engineering calculations, such

solving partial differential equations.

They

were

largely

programmed

FORTRAN

and

assembly

language. Typical operating

systems were

FMS

(the Fortran Monitor System)

and

IBSYS,

IBM's

operating sys-

tem for

the

7094.

1.2.3

The

Third

Generatien

(1!hS1980):

ICs

and

Multiprogramming

the early

1960~~

mast

computer

manufacturers

had two distinct,

and

totally

incompatible, product lines.

the

one

hand there

were

the

word-oriented,

large-scale scientific computers, such as the

7094,

which were used

for

numerical

calculations in science

and

engineering.

the

other

hand,

there were

the

character-oriented, commercial computers, such as the

1401,

which

were

widely

used

for

tape.sorting and

printing

banks

and insurance companies.

Developing

and

maintaining two completely different product lines was an

expensive proposition for

the

manufacturers.

addition,

many

new computer

customers

initially

needed

small machine

but

later outgrew

and wanted

bigger machine that would run

all

their

old

programs,

but faster.

IBM

attempted to solve both of these problems at

single stroke

introduc-

ing

the Systed360.

The

360

was

series

software-compatible machines

SEC.

1.2

HISTORY

OPERATiNG

SYSTEMS

ranging

from

1401-sized

much

powerful

than

the

7094,

The machines

differed

only in price

and

performance (maximum

memory,

processor speed,

number of

devices permitted,

and

so forth.). Since all the machines

had

the

same architecture and instruction set, programs written for one machine could run

all

the

others,

least

theory.

Fulthermore,

the

360

was

designed

handle

both

scientific

and

commercial computing. Thus

single family

machines

could satisfy the needs

all customers.

subsequent

years,

IBM

has

come out

with compatible successors to the

360

line, using more modem technology,

known

the

370,4300,3080,

and

3090

series.

The

360

was

the first major computer line to use (small-scale) Integrated

Cir-

cuits (ICs),

thus

providing

major prioe/performance advantage over

the

second-

generation machines, which were built up

from

individual transistors.

was

immediate success,

and

the

idea

family

compatible computers

was

soon

adopted

by all the other major manufacturers. The descendants

these

machines

are

still in use at scattered computer centers

today,

but their use is declining

rapidly.

The

greatest strength of the "one family" idea was simultaneously its greatest

weakness.

The

intention

was

that all software, including

the

operating system,

had

to work

all models. It had

run

on smail systems,

which

often just

replaced 1401s for copying cards to tape, and on very large systems, which often

replaced 7094s for doing weather forecasting

and

other

heavy

computing. It had

to be

good

systems

with

few

peripherals

and

systems

with

many

peri-

pherals. It

had

to work in commercial environments

and

in scientific environ-

ments.

Above

all, it had to

efficient for

all

of these different uses.

There

was

way

that

IBM

(or

anybody

else)

could write

piece

software

meet

all

those

conflicting requirements.

The

result was

enormous and

extraordinarily complex operating system,

probably

two to

three

orders

magni-

tude

larger

than

FMS.

consisted

millions

lines

assembly

langwge

writ-

ten by thousands of programmers,

and

contained thousands

upon

thmands

bugs, which necessitated

continuous

stream

of new releases in

&tempt to

correct them.

Each

new release

fixed

some bugs

and

introduced new ones, so

the

number

bugs

probably

remained constant in

time.

One

the

designers

0~/360,

Fred

Brooks, subsequently wrote a witty

and

incisive

book

(Brooks,

1975)

describing

his

experiences with

OSf360.

While it

would

impossible to summarize the

book

here,

suffice

it to

say

that

the

cover

shows

herd

of prehistoric beasts

stuck

tar

pit.

The

cover

Silberschatz and

Galvin'

book

(

1994)

makes

similar point.

Despite

its enormous size and problems,

OW360

and the similar third-

generation operating systems produced

other computer

manufacturers

actually

satisfied most of

their

customers reasonably well. They also popularized several

key techniques absent in second-generation operating systems. Probably

the

most

important of

these

was

multiprogramming.

On the

7094,

when

the

current job

paused

wait

for

tape

other

L/O

operation

complete,

the

CPU

simply

sat

INTRODUCTION

CHAP.

idle until the

I/0

finished.

With

heavily CPU-bound scientific calculations, VO is

infrequent, so

this

wasted time is not significant. With commercial data process-

ing,

the

110

wait

time

can

often

percent of the total time, so something

had to

done

avoid havina the

CPU

idle so much.

The solution that evolved

was

to partition memory into several pieces, with

different job in each partition,

shown in Fig. 1-4. While one job

was

waiting

for

to complete,

another

job could

using

the

CPU.

enough jobs could

held in main memory at once,

the

CPU

could

kept busy

nearly

100

percent of

the time. Having multiple jobs in memory at once

requires

special hardware to

protect each job against

snooping

and

mischief by the other ones, but

the

3M)

and

other t&d-generation systems

were

equipped with this hardyare.

Figure

1-4.

multiprogramming

system

with

three

jobs

memory.

Another major feature present in third-generation operating systems

was

the

ability to

mid

jobs from

cards

onto the

disk

soon

they were brought to the

computer room.

Then,

whenever a running job finished, the operating

system

could

load

a new

job

from

the

disk into the now-empty partition and

run

it. This

technique is called

spooling

(from

Simultaneous

Peripheral

Operation On Line)

and

was

also

used for output. With spooling,

the

1401s were no longer needed,

and

much

carrying

tapes

disappeared.

Although third-generation operating systems

were

well-suited

for big scien-

tific calculations and massive commercial data processing runs, they were still

basically

batch

systems. Many programmers pined for

the

first-generation days

when they had

the

machine

all to themselves for

few

hours,

they

could debug

their

programs quickly. With $hid-generation

systems,

the

time

between submit-

ting

job

and

getting back

output

was

often several hours,

single mis-

placed comma could

cause

a compilation

fail,

and

the programmer to waste

half a

day.

This

desire for quick response time paved

the

way

for

timesharing,

a variant

multiprograming, in which each user

has

on-line

terminal.

timeshar-

ing

system,

users

are

logged

and

them

are

thinking or

talking

drinking

coffee,

the

CPU

can

allocated in turn to

the

three

jobs that want ser-

vice. Since

people

debugging programs usually

issue

short

commands

(e.g.,

com-

pile

five-page

procedure)

rather

than

long ones

(e.g.,

sort

million-record file),

the

computer

can

provide fast, interactive service

a number

users

and

SEC.

1.2

HISTORY

OPERATING

SYSTEMS

perhaps also work on big batch jobs in the background when the

CPU

is otherwise

idle. Although

the

first serious timesharing system

(CTSS)

was

developed

M.I.T.

specially modified

7094

(Corbato et al., 1962), timesharing

did

not

really become popular until

the

necessary protection hardware became

widespread during the third generation.

After the success of

the

CTSS

system,

MIT,

Bell

Labs,

and General Electric

(then

major computer manufacturer) decided to embark on

the

development

"computer utility,"

machine

that

would support hundreds of simultaneous

timesharing users. Their model was

the

electricity distribution system-when you

need

electric power, you just stick

plug in the wall, and within reason,

much

power

you need will

there. The designers of

this

system, known

MUL-

TICS

(MULTiplexed Information

and

Computing Service), envisioned one huge

machine providing computing power for everyone in Boston. The

idea

that

machines far more powerful

than

their

GE-645

would

sold as personal comput-

ers for

few thousand dollars only

years

later

was

pure science fiction at the

time.

To make

long story short,

MULTES

introduced

many

seminal ideas into the

computer literature, but building it was a lot

harder

than

anyone

had expected.

Bell

Labs

dropped out

the

project, and General Electric quit the computer busi-

ness altogether. Eventually,

MULI'ICs

ran

well enough to

used

a production

environment

MIT

and dozens

sites elsewhere,

but

the concept of

computer

utility fizzled out

computer

prices

plummeted. Still,

MULTICS

had

enormous

influence on subsequent systems.

is described in

(Corbam

al.,

1972; Corbato

and

Vyssotsky,

1965;

Daley

and

Dennis,

1968;

Organick,

1972;

Saltzer,

1974).

Another major development during

the

third generation. was the phenomenal

growth of minicomputers, starting

with

the

DEC

PDP-

in 196 1. The

PDP-1

had

only

8-bit words, but

$120,000

per

machine (less than

percent

the

price of

7094),

they

sold

like hotcakes. For certain kinds

nornumerical

work,

it was almost

fast

the

7094,

and

gave

birth

to a whole

new

industry. It

was

quickly followed by a series of other PDPs (unlike

IBM's

family,

all incompati-

ble) culminating in

the

PDP-

One

the computer scientists

Bell

Labs

who

had

worked

the

MULTICS

project, Ken Thompson, subsequently found

small

PDP-'7

minicomputer that no

one was using and

set

out to ,write

strip

d-down, one-user vmion

MULTICS.

This work later developed into the ~~Cperatin~ system,

which

became

pop-

lar

the

academic world,

with

government agencies,

and

with

many

companies.

The history of

WIX

has been told elsewhere (e.g., Salus,

1994).

Suffice

say, that because

the

source

code

was widely available,

various

organizations

developed their own (incompatible) versions, which led to chaos.

make it pos-

sible to

write

programs

that

could run on any

uMx

system,

IEEE

developed

standard for

UNIX,

called

POSIX,

that most versions of

UNIX

now support.

Posrx

defines a minimal sytern call interface that conformant

UNIX

systems must sup-

port.

fact,

some

other operating systems now

also

suppoa the

posIx

interface.

INTRODUCTION

CHAP.

1.2.4

The

Fourth

Generation (1980-Present):

Persond

Computers

With

the

development

LSI

(Large

Scale Integration) circuits,

chips

contain-

ing

thousands of transistors

a square centimeter

silicon,

the

age

the per-

sonal computer dawned. In terms

architecture, personal computers were not

that different from minicomputers of

the

PDP-11 class, but

terms of price they

certainly

were

different.

Where

the minicomputer made it possible for

depart-

ment in

company or university

have

its own computer,

the

microprocessor

chip

made

it possible for

single individual to have his or

her

own personal com-

puter. The most powerful personal computers

used

by businesses, universities,

and

government installations

are

usually called

workstations,

but they

are

really

just large personal computers. Usually,

they

are

connected together

network.

The widespread availability

computing power, especially highly interactive

computing power usually with excellent graphics, led

the

growth

major

industry producing software

for

personal cornputers.

Much

this

software

was

userfriendly meaning that it

was

intended for users who not only knew nothing

about

computers

but

furthermore

had

absolutely

intention

whatsoever

learn-

ing.

This was certainly a major change from

OS1360,

whose

job control language,

JCL,

was

so arcane that entire books were written about it

(e.g.,

Cadow,

1970).

Two operating

systems

initially dominated the personal computer

and

work-

station scene: Microsoft's

MS-DOS

and

~IX.

MS-DOS

was

widely used on the

IBM

and

other machines

using

the

InteI

8088

CPU

and

its

successors,

the

80286,

80386,

and

80486

(which

w.e

will refer

henceforth as

the

286,

386,

and

486,

respectively), and later

the

Pentium

and fentium

Pro.

Although the initial version

MS-DOS

was relatively primitive, subsequent versions have included more

advanced

features, including many taken from

UNH.

Microsoft's successor

MS-WS,

WINDOWS,

origidly

ran

top<~f

MS-DoS

(k,

it was more

a shell

than

operatin system), but starting in

1995

freestanding version of

WIN-

DOWS,

WINDOWS

was released, so

MS-DOS

is no longer needed to support it.

Another Microsoft operating system is

WINDOWS

which

is compatible with

WINDOWS

certain level,

but

complete

rewrite

from

scratch inter'nally.

The

other

major

contender is

Wm,

which is dominant

workstations

and

other

high-end computers, such as network

servers.

It is especially popular

machines powered by

high-performance

RISC chips.

These

machines usually

have

the

computing

power

minicomputer, even

though

they

are

dedicated

single

user, so it

logical that

they

are equipped with

operating

system

origi-

nally designed for minicomputers, namely

UNIX.

interesting

development

that

began

taking

place

during

the mid-1980s is

the

growth

networks

personal computers running

network

operating

sys-

tems

and

distributed

operating

systems

(Tanenbaurn,

1995).

a network

operating system,

the

users are aware

the existence

multiple computers

and

can

log

remote machines and copy files

from

one

machine

another.

Each

machine runs its own local operating system and has its

own

local user (or users).

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