Catenins, Wnt signaling and cancer
Nick Barker* and Hans Clevers
Summary
Recent studies indicate that plakoglobin may have a
similar function to that of b-catenin within the Wnt
signaling pathway. b-catenin is known to be an oncogene
in many forms of human cancer, following acquisition of
stabilizing mutations in amino terminal sequences.
Kolligs
(1)
and coworkers show, however, that unlike b-
catenin, plakoglobin induces neoplastic transformation
of rat epithelial cells in the absence of such stabilizing
mutations. Cellular transformation by plakoglobin also
appears to be distinct from that of b-catenin in that it
requires activation of the proto-oncogene c
-myc
. Surpris-
ingly, c
-myc
is activated more efficiently by plakoglobin
than b-catenin, despite its previous identification as a
target of Tcf/b-catenin.
(2)
In contrast, a synthetic Tcf
reporter gene is activated to a much greater extent by b-
catenin than plakoglobin. Plakoglobin and b-catenin may
therefore have different roles in Wnt signaling and
cancer, which reflect their differential effects on target
gene activity. BioEssays 22:961±965, 2000.
ß 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Introduction
Plakoglobin, b-catenin and Drosophila Armadillo are closely
related proteins that possess dual roles in cell adhesion and in
the Wnt/Wingless signaling pathways. Within cell±cell junc-
tions known as adherens junctions, these catenins function to
link the cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin to the actin cyto-
skeleton via a-catenin.
(3± 5)
Plakoglobin also has an additional
role to play in cell adhesion, as an integral component of a
second type of cell±cell junction known as a desmosome.
(6,7)
Recent years have seen an explosion of interest in their
function within the Wnt/Wingless signal transduction cas-
cades, following the discovery of a functional interaction
between b-catenin/Armadillo and members of the Tcf tran-
scription factor family within the nuclei of Wnt-responsive
cells.
(8,9)
These Tcf/b-catenin complexes are somewhat
comparable to ``nuclear'' missiles with a sophisticated gui-
dance system and an explosive warhead. The Tcf's specifi-
cally guide the complex to promoters of target genes while
b-catenin provides the explosive power to initiate their trans-
criptional activation. These target genes influence a number of
developmental processes in a variety of organisms. Corre-
spondingly, deregulation of Tcf/b-catenin activity can promote
carcinogenesis in many tissues.
Here, we will focus on the recent studies that have high-
lighted the role of plakoglobin in Wnt signaling and the impli-
cations that deregulation of its signaling function may have for
human cancers. To fully grasp the significance of these
findings, however, it is first necessary to briefly outline the Wnt
signal transduction pathway.
(9±11)
Wnt signaling in brief
Regulation of b-catenin levels by the Wnt pathway is essential
for ensuring proper development and differentiation of many
tissues (Fig. 1). In the absence of a Wnt signal, a multicom-
ponent destruction complex containing GSK3b, axin and APC
promotes the phosphorylation of b-catenin at its N terminus
and thereby targets it for degradation by the ubiquitin-
proteasome pathway.
(12)
Levels of free b-catenin in the cell
consequently remain low and formation of nuclear Tcf/b-
catenin complexes is inhibited. Following initiation of a
complex intracellular cascade via binding of soluble Wnt
factors to their transmembrane receptors, known as frizzleds,
the activity of this destruction complex is inhibited, however,
and cytoplasmic b-catenin levels rise. This leads to accumula-
tion of b-catenin in the nucleus and promotes the formation of
transcriptionally active complexes with members of the Tcf
family of transcription factors. These transcription factor
complexes subsequently activate Tcf target genes including
c-myc,
(2)
cyclin D1
(13)
and Tcf-1,
(14)
which influence various
developmental processes.
Plakoglobin and Wnt signaling
The highly conserved central regions of plakoglobin and
b-catenin comprise 12 imperfect armadillo repeats which
mediate binding to a variety of proteins including a-catenin,
E-cadherin, APC, axin/conductin and Tcf transcription fac-
tors.
(15±17)
Other conserved features include the presence of
putative N-terminal GSK3b phosphorylation sites and strong
transactivation domains within their carboxy termini. Con-
servation of these features, many of which are important for
the Wnt signaling function of b-catenin, led to suggestions that
plakoglobin may have a similar role in transducing Wnt signals.
In support of this possibility, injection of Xenopus embryos with
either b-catenin or plakoglobin mRNA was found to induce
formation of a second body axis, a well-characterized Wnt-1
phenotype.
(18±21)
Additionally, experiments in cultured cells
have shown that Wnt-1 expression upregulates both plako-
BioEssays 22:961±965, ß 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. BioEssays 22.11 961
University Medical Center Utrecht, Department of Immunology, The
Netherlands.
*Correspondence to: Dr. Nick Barker, University Medical Center
Utrecht, Department of Immunology, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX
Utrecht, The Netherlands. E-mail: Nbarker@lab.azu.nl
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