光学涂层与色彩的历史渊源

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"这篇文章探讨了颜色与薄膜之间的历史关系，特别是在光学涂层领域的应用。作者Angus Macleod在 Thin Film Center Inc工作，他指出颜色与薄膜的关联可以追溯到很久以前，但对颜色现象的科学理解却相对较晚，直到19世纪才认识到薄膜中的干涉效应是产生颜色的原因。20世纪，人们开始接受客观定义颜色的方法，使得颜色在光学涂层中的重要性得到广泛认可。文章涵盖了颜色理论的历史，并与光学涂层技术的发展交织在一起，同时也涉及到了颜色本身的普遍问题。文中提到的OCIS代码涉及薄膜、光学、颜色科学等领域。" 在这篇文章中，作者首先提到了颜色的早期历史，指出尽管人们对颜色与薄膜之间的联系有直观的认识，但对这种现象背后的科学原理——干涉效应的理解却是在19世纪才得以确立。干涉是由于光在薄膜内反射和折射时产生的相位差，导致特定波长的光相互加强或抵消，从而呈现出不同的颜色。这一发现对于理解和利用薄膜的颜色特性至关重要。 20世纪，随着科学技术的进步，人们对颜色的主观感知转化为客观的测量方法，这使得颜色在各种应用中，特别是光学涂层领域，成为了一个关键属性。光学涂层是指在材料表面涂覆一层或多层薄膜，以改变材料对光的反射、透射和吸收特性。在光学设备如镜头、滤光片等中，颜色控制是必不可少的，因为它直接影响设备的性能和视觉效果。文章深入讨论了颜色理论，这部分内容可能包括色彩的心理效应、生理反应以及色彩测量的标准和方法，如CIE色彩空间等。同时，它也触及了颜色作为一个广泛主题的其他方面，如艺术、文化和社会对颜色意义的影响。通过回顾历史，文章旨在展示人类如何逐渐掌握并利用颜色的物理性质，以及这些进展如何推动了光学科技的发展。OCIS代码所代表的领域包括薄膜科学（330.0330）、光学（190.0190）和颜色科学（310.0310, 330.1690），这些都反映了文章内容的深度和广度。这篇文章是理解颜色在光学涂层技术中重要作用的一个宝贵资源，同时也是一部关于颜色科学和薄膜技术历史的精彩概述。

April 30, 2010 / Vol. 8, Supplement / CHINESE OPTICS LETTERS 1

Coatings and color: the early days

Angus Macleod

Thin Film Center Inc, 2745 E Via Rotonda, Tucson, AZ 85716-5227, USA

E-mail: angus@thinﬁlmcenter.com

Received Octob er 31, 2009

Color has b een associated with thin ﬁlms of materials for longer than we know, but, although the eﬀect

was known and observed, it was not fully understood until comparatively recently. It was the 19th Century

b efore the interference eﬀects in thin ﬁlms that are responsible for their color, were properly recognized.

Then the subjective, human response that is color, had to wait until the 20th Century before objective

metho ds of deﬁning it were accepted. Nowadays, there are many applications where the color of an optical

coating is its most imp ortant attribute. This talk will survey some of the history of the struggle to

understand and master the color of optical coatings. This is inextricably mingled with the history of color

itself and so much of this account deals with the general problem of color.

OCIS co des: 330.0330, 190.0190, 310.0310, 330.1690

doi: 10.3788/COL201008S1.0001.

1. Early history

Color is of immense importance in our daily lives and

it has always been so. Even in the simple act of decid-

ing whether something is safe or ready to eat, color is of

great importance. Rulers have sometimes, as in the cases

of the Emperors of China and of Ancient Rome, reserved

certain colors for their own exclusive use. Artists in their

attempts to record, more permanently, temporary events,

understood very well the importance of color.

History is an attempt to understand the past in terms

understandable in the present. As our culture changes

we ﬁnd it more and more diﬃcult to maintain an un-

derstanding of earlier cultures, and much of our histor-

ical information comes from physical objects that have

somehow b een preserved. Especially important to us are

written records. Anyone who visits one of the Egyptian

tombs will have been struck by the use of color that still

appears as bright today as it must have done thousands

of years ago. Color to the Egyptians was not simply

a decoration but was deeply integrated into the nature

of things. Our knowledge of Egyptian color technology,

which was very advanced, is mainly derived from a few

papyri that have somehow survived. It is notable that

natural pigments were supplemented by synthetic ones.

Some of these were produced in high-temperature pro-

cesses as a kind of glass, later ground into a pigment.

Then the Egyptians were perhaps the ﬁrst to use a series

of pigments known as lakes derived from the residue of

dyeing processes. We still use names like crimson lake in

our paint boxes. Color mixing appears not to have been

practiced to any great extent by the Egyptians, perhaps

because of destructive chemical reaction between many

of their pigments.

Most of the early writings on color contain much that

we would describe as metaphysics and rather less as tech-

nology. Possibly the earliest work that we would recog-

nize as essentially technological was that of Leon Battista

Alberti (1404–1472). Alberti published a book on paint-

ing in 1435. The original was in Latin but was translated

by Alberti into Italian as Della pittura. It was primarily

concerned with the mathematical theory of perspective

but it also contained some information on color mixing

based on the fundamental colors, yellow, blue, green and

red. Although no ﬁgure was included in the work, it

was much later assembled by art historians into a dia-

gram that closely resembles the modern CIE L

∗

color

space.

At what stage color in thin ﬁlms became important is

unknown, but it must have b een at least observed at a

very early stage. For example, oil and water were com-

mon substances even in prehistory. The trail of a snail

shows color. The exceedingly curious feature of colors

in thin ﬁlms is that the material of the thin ﬁlm is it-

self completely devoid of color. The color occurs when

the ﬁlm acquires a certain minimum thickness and dis-

appears when it has attained a rather greater thickness.

For objective scientiﬁc studies of colors in thin ﬁlms we

must jump to the 17th Century.

2. The 17th to 19th century

In his Micrographia, published in 1665

[1]

, Robert

Hooke (1635–1703) described observations of colors in

thin sheets of mica and between two glass plates pressed

together. He was certainly aware that the colors de-

pended on the thickness of the mica or of the air be-

tween the plates, but could not exactly relate thickness

and color. He did, however, recognize that the thickness

must be within a certain range for the colors to appear.

It was Isaac Newton (1642–1727) who carried out what

appear to be the very ﬁrst accurate observations of color

related to ﬁlm thickness. The experiments are described

in detail in Newton’s bo ok Optiks

[2]

published in its ﬁrst

edition in 1704. Newton even recognized the changes in

color with angle of incidence and his model of colors in

thin ﬁlms allows us to predict the color of any given ﬁlm.

Newton’s measurements were so precise that Thomas

Young some 100 years later was able to use them accu-

rately to calculate wavelengths.

It is diﬃcult fully to appreciate the diﬃculties faced by

these early workers. Newton’s light source was the sun

that shone through a small hole in a screen. His two-

prism experiments had to wait a full year after he had ob-

tained the ﬁrst until he could obtain a second prism. How

to measure under these circumstances the precise thick-

ness of a thin ﬁlm? The experiment, known nowadays as

1671-7694/2010/S10001-06

° 2010 Chinese Optics Letters

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光学涂层与色彩的历史渊源

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