深入解析程序员视角的计算机系统第二版

计算机系统

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Contents xv

9.7.1 Core i7 Address Translation 800

9.7.2 Linux Virtual Memory System 803

9.8 Memory Mapping 807

9.8.1 Shared Objects Revisited 807

9.8.2 The

fork Function Revisited 809

9.8.3 The

execve Function Revisited 810

9.8.4 User-level Memory Mapping with the

mmap Function 810

9.9 Dynamic Memory Allocation 812

9.9.1 The

malloc and free Functions 814

9.9.2 Why Dynamic Memory Allocation? 816

9.9.3 Allocator Requirements and Goals 817

9.9.4 Fragmentation 819

9.9.5 Implementation Issues 820

9.9.6 Implicit Free Lists 820

9.9.7 Placing Allocated Blocks 822

9.9.8 Splitting Free Blocks 823

9.9.9 Getting Additional Heap Memory 823

9.9.10 Coalescing Free Blocks 824

9.9.11 Coalescing with Boundary Tags 824

9.9.12 Putting It Together: Implementing a Simple Allocator 827

9.9.13 Explicit Free Lists 835

9.9.14 Segregated Free Lists 836

9.10 Garbage Collection 838

9.10.1 Garbage Collector Basics 839

9.10.2 Mark&Sweep Garbage Collectors 840

9.10.3 Conservative Mark&Sweep for C Programs 842

9.11 Common Memory-Related Bugs in C Programs 843

9.11.1 Dereferencing Bad Pointers 843

9.11.2 Reading Uninitialized Memory 843

9.11.3 Allowing Stack Buffer Overﬂows 844

9.11.4 Assuming that Pointers and the Objects They Point to Are the

Same Size 844

9.11.5 Making Off-by-One Errors 845

9.11.6 Referencing a Pointer Instead of the Object It Points to 845

9.11.7 Misunderstanding Pointer Arithmetic 846

9.11.8 Referencing Nonexistent Variables 846

9.11.9 Referencing Data in Free Heap Blocks 847

9.11.10 Introducing Memory Leaks 847

9.12 Summary 848

Bibliographic Notes 848

Homework Problems 849

Solutions to Practice Problems 853

Preface

This book (CS:APP) is for computer scientists, computer engineers, and others

who want to be able to write better programs by learning what is going on “under

the hood” of a computer system.

Our aim is to explain the enduring concepts underlying all computer systems,

and to show you the concrete ways that these ideas affect the correctness, perfor-

mance, and utility of your application programs. Other systems books are written

from a builder’s perspective, describing how to implement the hardware or the sys-

tems software, including the operating system, compiler, and network interface.

This book is written from a programmer’s perspective, describing how application

programmers can use their knowledge of a system to write better programs. Of

course, learning what a system is supposed to do provides a good ﬁrst step in learn-

ing how to build one, and so this book also serves as a valuable introduction to

those who go on to implement systems hardware and software.

If you study and learn the concepts in this book, you will be on your way to

becoming the rare “power programmer” who knows how things work and how

to ﬁx them when they break. Our aim is to present the fundamental concepts in

ways that you will ﬁnd useful right away. You will also be prepared to delve deeper,

studying such topics as compilers, computer architecture, operating systems, em-

bedded systems, and networking.

Assumptions about the Reader’s Background

The presentation of machine code in the book is based on two related formats

supported by Intel and its competitors, colloquially known as “x86.” IA32 is the

machine code that has become the de facto standard for a wide range of systems.

x86-64 is an extension of IA32 to enable programs to operate on larger data and to

reference a wider range of memory addresses. Since x86-64 systems are able to run

IA32 code, both of these forms of machine code will see widespread use for the

foreseeable future. We consider how these machines execute C programs on Unix

or Unix-like (such as Linux) operating systems. (To simplify our presentation,

we will use the term “Unix” as an umbrella term for systems having Unix as

their heritage, including Solaris, Mac OS, and Linux.) The text contains numerous

programming examples that have been compiled and run on Linux systems. We

assume that you have access to such a machine and are able to log in and do simple

things such as changing directories.

If your computer runs Microsoft Windows, you have two choices. First, you

can get a copy of Linux (www.ubuntu.com) and install it as a “dual boot” option,

so that your machine can run either operating system. Alternatively, by installing

a copy of the Cygwin tools (www.cygwin.com), you can run a Unix-like shell under

xix

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