深入探索Linux虚拟内存机制

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"深入理解Linux虚拟内存管理英文版" 《Understanding the Linux Virtual Memory Manager》是Mel Gorman所著的一本关于Linux操作系统中虚拟内存管理的专业书籍。这本书深入探讨了Linux内核如何管理和优化内存资源，对于系统管理员、软件开发者以及对操作系统底层工作原理感兴趣的读者来说，是一份宝贵的参考资料。 Linux虚拟内存管理是操作系统中的核心组件之一，它负责将物理内存和虚拟内存之间的转换，确保多个进程可以高效且安全地共享有限的内存资源。虚拟内存系统的主要目标包括：提供地址空间隔离、实现内存交换以缓解物理内存压力、支持内存保护机制防止数据破坏，以及优化内存访问速度。本书详细介绍了以下几个关键知识点： 1. **页表和地址转换**：Linux使用页表来映射虚拟地址到物理地址，通过多级页表结构提高地址映射效率。书中会解释如何设置和管理这些页表，以及如何处理页故障（page fault）。 2. **内存分配策略**：包括slab分配器和伙伴系统，它们用于高效地分配和回收内存块。slab分配器主要用于缓存对象，而伙伴系统则适用于大块内存的分配和释放。 3. **交换和交换分区**：当物理内存不足时，Linux会将部分不活跃的内存页写入磁盘上的交换分区，以腾出物理内存供其他进程使用。书中会阐述交换机制的工作原理。 4. **内存压缩**：在内存紧张的情况下，Linux内核可能会采用内存压缩技术，将内存页压缩后存储，以节省物理内存。 5. **内存调页策略**：Linux内核有一套复杂的算法来决定何时换入或换出内存页，如LRU（Least Recently Used）算法及其改进版本。 6. **内存缓存和缓冲区**：包括文件系统的缓冲区和缓存，它们极大地提高了I/O性能。书中会介绍如何管理和调整这些缓存。 7. **内存权限和访问控制**：通过页表项的权限位，Linux能够限制进程对内存的访问权限，防止数据泄露和恶意修改。 8. **内存泄漏检测和分析**：如何识别和处理可能导致系统性能下降的内存泄漏问题。 9. **实时内存管理**：对于实时系统，内存管理有特殊的需求，例如确定性的内存分配和释放。通过阅读本书，读者将能够深入了解Linux内核如何在资源有限的环境中实现高效的内存管理，从而更好地优化系统性能，解决内存相关的系统问题。这本书不仅适合Linux内核开发者，也适合任何希望提升系统级编程和性能调优能力的人士。

xvi Preface

• A live version of CodeViz, the tool used to generate call graphs for the book,

is available. If you feel that the book’s graphs are lacking some detail you

want,generate them yourself.

• The VMRegress, CodeViz and PatchSet packages, which are discussed

in Chapter 1, are available in /cdrom/software. gcc-3.0.4 is also provided

because it is required for building CodeViz.

Mount the CD on /cdrom as follows:

root@joshua:/$ mount /dev/cdrom /cdrom -o exec

The Web server is Apache 1.3.27 (http://www.apache.org/)andhas been built

and conﬁgured to run with its root as /cdrom/.Ifyour distribution normally uses

another directory, you will need to use this one instead. To start it, run the script

/cdrom/start

server.Ifnoerrors occur, the output should look like:

mel@joshua:~$ /cdrom/start_server

Starting CodeViz Server: done

Starting Apache Server: done

The URL to access is http://localhost:10080/

When the server starts successfully, point your browser to http://localhost:10080

to avail of the CD’s Web services. To shut down the server, run the script

/cdrom/stop

server,andtheCDmay then be unmounted.

Typographic Conventions

The conventions used in this document are simple. New concepts that are in-

troduced, as well as URLs, are in italicized font. Binaries and package names

are in bold.Structures, ﬁeld names, compile time deﬁnes and variables are in a

constant-width font. At times, when talking about a ﬁeld in a structure, both the

structure and ﬁeld name will be included as page→list,forexample. File names

are in a constant-width font, but include ﬁles have angle brackets around them like

<linux/mm.h> and may be found in the include/ directory of the kernel source.

Acknowledgments

The compilation of this book was not a trivial task. This book was researched and

developed in the open, and I would be remiss not to mention some of the people

who helped me at various intervals. If there is anyone I missed, I apologize now.

First, I would like to thank John O’Gorman, who tragically passed away while

the material for this book was being researched. His experience and guidance largely

inspired the format and quality of this book.

Second, I would like to thank Mark L. Taub from Prentice Hall PTR for giving

me the opportunity to publish this book. It has been a rewarding experience and

Preface xvii

made trawling through all the code worthwhile. Massive thanks go to my reviewers,

who provided clear and detailed feedback long after I thought I had ﬁnished writing.

Finally, on the publisher’s front, I would like to thank Bruce Perens for allowing me

to publish in the Bruce Perens’ Open Source Series (http://www.perens.com/Books).

With the technical research, a number of people provided invaluable insight.

Abhishek Nayani was a source of encouragement and enthusiasm early in the re-

search. Ingo Oeser kindly provided invaluable assistance early on with a detailed

explanation of how data is copied from userspace to kernel space, and he included

some valuable historical context. He also kindly oﬀered to help me if I felt I ever got

lost in the twisty maze of kernel code. Scott Kaplan made numerous corrections to

anumber of systems from noncontiguous memory allocation to page replacement

policy. Jonathon Corbet provided the most detailed account of the history of kernel

development with the kernel page he writes for Linux Weekly News. Zack Brown,

the chief behind Kernel Traﬃc, is the sole reason I did not drown in kernel-related

mail. IBM, as part of the Equinox Project, provided an xSeries 350, which was in-

valuable for running my own test kernels on machines larger than those I previously

had access to. Late in the game, Jeﬀrey Haran found the few remaining technical

corrections and more of the ever-present grammar errors. Most importantly, I’m

grateful for his enlightenment on some PPC issues. Finally, Patrick Healy was cru-

cial to ensuring that this book was consistent and approachable to people who are

familiar with, but not experts on, Linux or memory management.

Anumber of people helped with smaller technical issues and general inconsisten-

cies where material was not covered in suﬃcient depth. They are Muli Ben-Yehuda,

Parag Sharma, Matthew Dobson, Roger Luethi, Brian Lowe and Scott Crosby. All

of them sent corrections and queries on diﬀerent parts of the document, which

ensured that too much prior knowledge was not assumed.

Carl Spalletta sent a number of queries and corrections to every aspect of the

book in its earlier online form. Steve Greenland sent a large number of grammar

corrections. Philipp Marek went above and beyond being helpful by sending more

than 90 separate corrections and queries on various aspects. Long after I thought

Iwas ﬁnished, Aris Sotiropoulos sent a large number of small corrections and sug-

gestions. The last person, whose name I cannot remember, but is an editor for a

magazine, sent me more than 140 corrections to an early version. You know who

you are. Thanks.

Eleven people sent a few corrections. Though small, they were still missed

by several of myownchecks. They are Marek Januszewski, Amit Shah, Adrian

Stanciu, Andy Isaacson, Jean Francois Martinez, Glen Kaukola, Wolfgang Oertl,

Michael Babcock, Kirk True, Chuck Luciano and David Wilson.

On the development of VMRegress, nine people helped me keep it together.

Danny Faught and Paul Larson both sent me a number of bug reports and helped

ensure that VMRegress worked with a variety of diﬀerent kernels. Cliﬀ White, from

the OSDL labs, ensured that VMRegress would have a wider application than my

owntest box. Dave Olien, also associated with the OSDL labs, was responsible for

updating VMRegress to work with 2.5.64 and later kernels. Albert Cahalan sent

all the information I needed to make VMRegress function against later proc utilities.

Finally, Andrew Morton, Rik van Riel and Scott Kaplan all provided insight on the

CHAPTER

Introduction

Linux is a relatively new operating system that has begun to enjoy a lot of attention

from the business, academic and free software worlds. As the operating system

matures, its feature set, capabilities and performance grow, but so, out of necessity

does its size and complexity. Table 1.1 shows the size of the kernel source code in

bytes and lines of code of the mm/ part of the kernel tree. This size does not include

the machine-dependent code or any of the buﬀer management code and does not

even pretend to be an accurate metric for complexity, but it still serves as a small

indicator.

Version Release Date Total Size Size of mm/ Line Count

1.0 March 13, 1992 5.9MiB 96KiB 3,109

1.2.13 February 8, 1995 11MiB 136KiB 4,531

2.0.39 January 9, 2001 35MiB 204KiB 6,792

2.2.22 September 16, 2002 93MiB 292KiB 9,554

2.4.22 August 25, 2003 181MiB 436KiB 15,724

2.6.0-test4 August 22, 2003 261MiB 604KiB 21,714

Table 1.1. Kernel Size as an Indicator of Complexity

Out of habit, open source developers tell new developers with questions to refer

directly to the source with the “polite” acronym RTFS

,orrefer them to the kernel

newbies mailing list (http://www.kernelnewbies.org). With the Linux VM manager,

this used to be a suitable response because the time required to understand the VM

could be measured in weeks. Moreover, the books available devoted enough time

to the memory management chapters to make the relatively small amount of code

easy to navigate.

The books that describe the operating system such as Understanding the Linux

Kernel [BC00] [BC03] tend to cover the entire kernel rather than one topic with the

notable exception of device drivers [RC01]. These books, particularly Understanding

the Linux Kernel,provideinvaluable insight into kernel internals, but they miss the

details that are speciﬁc to the VM and not of general interest. But the book you are

holding details why ZONE

NORMAL is exactly 896MiB and exactly how per-cpu caches

Read The Flaming Source. It doesn’t really stand for Flaming, but children could be reading.

2 Introduction Chapter 1

are implemented. Other aspects of the VM, such as the boot memory allocator and

the VM ﬁlesystem, which are not of general kernel interest, are also covered in this

book.

Increasingly, to get a comprehensive view on how the kernel functions, one is

required to read through the source code line by line. This book tackles the VM

speciﬁcally so that this investment of time to understand the kernel functions will

be measured in weeks and not months. The details that are missed by the main

part of the book are caught by the code commentary.

In this chapter, there will be an informal introduction to the basics of acquiring

information on an open source project and some methods for managing, browsing

and comprehending the code. If you do not intend to be reading the actual source,

you may skip to Chapter 2.

1.1 Getting Started

One of the largest initial obstacles to understanding code is deciding where to start

and how to easily manage, browse and get an overview of the overall code structure.

If requested on mailing lists, people will provide some suggestions on how to proceed,

but a comprehensive methodology is rarely oﬀered aside from suggestions to keep

reading the source until it makes sense. The following sections introduce some useful

rules of thumb for open source code comprehension and speciﬁc guidelines for how

the rules may be applied to the kernel.

1.1.1 Conﬁguration and Building

With any open source project, the ﬁrst step is to download the source and read

the installation documentation. By convention, the source will have a README or

INSTALL ﬁle at the top level of the source tree [FF02]. In fact, some automated

build tools such as automake require the install ﬁle to exist. These ﬁles contain

instructions for conﬁguring and installing the package or give a reference to where

more information may be found. Linux is no exception because it includes a README

that describes how the kernel may be conﬁgured and built.

The second step is to build the software. In earlier days, the requirement for

many projects was to edit the Makefile by hand, but this is rarely the case now.

Free software usually uses at least autoconf

to automate testing of the build

environment and automake

to simplify the creation of Makefiles, so building is

often as simple as:

mel@joshua: project $ ./configure && make

Some older projects, such as the Linux kernel, use their own conﬁguration tools,

and some large projects such as the Apache Web server have numerous conﬁguration

options, but usually the conﬁgure script is the starting point. In the case of the

http://www.gnu.org/software/autoconf/

http://www.gnu.org/software/automake/

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