计算机系统概论：程序员视角

CSAPP

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Contents xvii

11.5 Web Servers 911

11.5.1 Web Basics 911

11.5.2 Web Content 912

11.5.3 HTTP Transactions 914

11.5.4 Serving Dynamic Content 916

11.6 Putting It Together: The Tiny Web Server 919

11.7 Summary 927

Bibliographic Notes 928

Homework Problems 928

Solutions to Practice Problems 929

Concurrent Programming 933

12.1 Concurrent Programming with Processes 935

12.1.1 A Concurrent Server Based on Processes 936

12.1.2 Pros and Cons of Processes 937

12.2 Concurrent Programming with I/O Multiplexing 939

12.2.1 A Concurrent Event-Driven Server Based on I/O

Multiplexing 942

12.2.2 Pros and Cons of I/O Multiplexing 946

12.3 Concurrent Programming with Threads 947

12.3.1 Thread Execution Model 948

12.3.2 Posix Threads 948

12.3.3 Creating Threads 950

12.3.4 Terminating Threads 950

12.3.5 Reaping Terminated Threads 951

12.3.6 Detaching Threads 951

12.3.7 Initializing Threads 952

12.3.8 A Concurrent Server Based on Threads 952

12.4 Shared Variables in Threaded Programs 954

12.4.1 Threads Memory Model 955

12.4.2 Mapping Variables to Memory 956

12.4.3 Shared Variables 956

12.5 Synchronizing Threads with Semaphores 957

12.5.1 Progress Graphs 960

12.5.2 Semaphores 963

12.5.3 Using Semaphores for Mutual Exclusion 964

12.5.4 Using Semaphores to Schedule Shared Resources 966

12.5.5 Putting It Together: A Concurrent Server Based on

Prethreading 970

12.6 Using Threads for Parallelism 974

Preface

This book (CS:APP) is for computer scientists, computer engineers, and others

who want to be able to write better programs by learning what is going on “under

the hood” of a computer system.

Our aim is to explain the enduring concepts underlying all computer systems,

and to show you the concrete ways that these ideas affect the correctness, perfor-

mance, and utility of your application programs. Other systems books are written

from a builder’s perspective, describing how to implement the hardware or the sys-

tems software, including the operating system, compiler, and network interface.

This book is written from a programmer’s perspective, describing how application

programmers can use their knowledge of a system to write better programs. Of

course, learning what a system is supposed to do provides a good ﬁrst step in learn-

ing how to build one, and so this book also serves as a valuable introduction to

those who go on to implement systems hardware and software.

If you study and learn the concepts in this book, you will be on your way to

becoming the rare “power programmer” who knows how things work and how

to ﬁx them when they break. Our aim is to present the fundamental concepts in

ways that you will ﬁnd useful right away. You will also be prepared to delve deeper,

studying such topics as compilers, computer architecture, operating systems, em-

bedded systems, and networking.

Assumptions about the Reader’s Background

The presentation of machine code in the book is based on two related formats

supported by Intel and its competitors, colloquially known as “x86.” IA32 is the

machine code that has become the de facto standard for a wide range of systems.

x86-64 is an extension of IA32 to enable programs to operate on larger data and to

reference a wider range of memory addresses. Since x86-64 systems are able to run

IA32 code, both of these forms of machine code will see widespread use for the

foreseeable future. We consider how these machines execute C programs on Unix

or Unix-like (such as Linux) operating systems. (To simplify our presentation,

we will use the term “Unix” as an umbrella term for systems having Unix as

their heritage, including Solaris, Mac OS, and Linux.) The text contains numerous

programming examples that have been compiled and run on Linux systems. We

assume that you have access to such a machine and are able to log in and do simple

things such as changing directories.

If your computer runs Microsoft Windows, you have two choices. First, you

can get a copy of Linux (www.ubuntu.com) and install it as a “dual boot” option,

so that your machine can run either operating system. Alternatively, by installing

a copy of the Cygwin tools (www.cygwin.com), you can run a Unix-like shell under

xix

xx Preface

Windows and have an environment very close to that provided by Linux. Not all

features of Linux are available under Cygwin, however.

We also assume that you have some familiarity with C or C++. If your only

prior experience is with Java, the transition will require more effort on your part,

but we will help you. Java and C share similar syntax and control statements.

However, there are aspects of C, particularly pointers, explicit dynamic memory

allocation, and formatted I/O, that do not exist in Java. Fortunately, C is a small

language, and it is clearly and beautifully described in the classic “K&R” text

by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie [58]. Regardless of your programming

background, consider K&R an essential part of your personal systems library.

Several of the early chapters in the book explore the interactions between

C programs and their machine-language counterparts. The machine-language

examples were all generated by the GNU gcc compiler running on IA32 and x86-

64 processors. We do not assume any prior experience with hardware, machine

language, or assembly-language programming.

New to C? Advice on the C programming language

To help readers whose background in C programming is weak (or nonexistent), we have also included

these special notes to highlight features that are especially important in C. We assume you are familiar

with C++ or Java.

How to Read the Book

Learning how computer systems work from a programmer’s perspective is great

fun, mainly because you can do it actively. Whenever you learn something new,

you can try it out right away and see the result ﬁrst hand. In fact, we believe that

the only way to learn systems is to do systems, either working concrete problems

or writing and running programs on real systems.

This theme pervades the entire book. When a new concept is introduced, it

is followed in the text by one or more practice problems that you should work

immediately to test your understanding. Solutions to the practice problems are

at the end of each chapter. As you read, try to solve each problem on your own,

and then check the solution to make sure you are on the right track. Each chapter

is followed by a set of homework problems of varying difﬁculty. Your instructor

has the solutions to the homework problems in an Instructor’s Manual. For each

homework problem, we show a rating of the amount of effort we feel it will require:

◆ Should require just a few minutes. Little or no programming required.

◆◆ Might require up to 20 minutes. Often involves writing and testing some code.

Many of these are derived from problems we have given on exams.

◆◆◆ Requires a signiﬁcant effort, perhaps 1–2 hours. Generally involves writing

and testing a signiﬁcant amount of code.

◆◆◆◆ A lab assignment, requiring up to 10 hours of effort.

Preface xxi

code/intro/hello.c

1 #include <stdio.h>

int main()

4 {

5 printf("hello, world\n");

6 return 0;

7 }

code/intro/hello.c

Figure 1 A typical code example.

Each code example in the text was formatted directly, without any manual

intervention, from a C program compiled with gcc and tested on a Linux system.

Of course, your system may have a different version of gcc, or a different compiler

altogether, and so your compiler might generate different machine code, but the

overall behavior should be the same. All of the source code is available from the

CS:APP Web page at csapp.cs.cmu.edu. In the text, the ﬁle names of the source

programs are documented in horizontal bars that surround the formatted code.

For example, the program in Figure 1 can be found in the ﬁle hello.c in directory

code/intro/. We encourage you to try running the example programs on your

system as you encounter them.

To avoid having a book that is overwhelming, both in bulk and in content,

we have created a number of Web asides containing material that supplements

the main presentation of the book. These asides are referenced within the book

with a notation of the form CHAP:TOP, where CHAP is a short encoding of the

chapter subject, and TOP is short code for the topic that is covered. For example,

Web Aside data:bool contains supplementary material on Boolean algebra for

the presentation on data representations in Chapter 2, while Web Aside arch:vlog

contains material describing processor designs using the Verilog hardware descrip-

tion language, supplementing the presentation of processor design in Chapter 4.

All of these Web asides are available from the CS:APP Web page.

Aside What is an aside?

You will encounter asides of this form throughout the text. Asides are parenthetical remarks that give

you some additional insight into the current topic. Asides serve a number of purposes. Some are little

history lessons. For example, where did C, Linux, and the Internet come from? Other asides are meant

to clarify ideas that students often ﬁnd confusing. For example, what is the difference between a cache

line, set, and block? Other asides give real-world examples. For example, how a ﬂoating-point error

crashed a French rocket, or what the geometry of an actual Seagate disk drive looks like. Finally, some

asides are just fun stuff. For example, what is a “hoinky”?

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