(/wiki/File:Al-
kindi_cryptographic.png)
(/wiki/File:Al-kindi_cryptographic.png)
First page of a book by Al-Kindi
(/wiki/Al-Kindi) which discusses
encryption of messages
(/wiki/File:16th_century_French_
(/wiki/File:16th_century_French_cypher_m
16th-century book-shaped French
(/wiki/France) cipher machine, with
arms of Henri II of France
(/wiki/Henri_II_of_France)
(/wiki/File:Encoded_letter_of_Ga
(/wiki/File:Encoded_letter_of_Gabriel_Luet
Enciphered letter from Gabriel de
Luetz d'Aramon
(/wiki/Gabriel_de_Luetz_d%27Aramon),
French Ambassador to the Ottoman
Empire
(/wiki/French_Ambassador_to_the_Ottom
after 1546, with partial decipherment
The Greeks of Classical times (/wiki/Ancient_Greece) are said to have known of ciphers (e.g., the scytale transposition cipher claimed to
have been used by the Spartan (/wiki/Sparta) military). Steganography (/wiki/Steganography) (i.e., hiding even the existence of a
message so as to keep it confidential) was also first developed in ancient times. An early example, from Herodotus (/wiki/Herodotus),
was a message tattooed on a slave's shaved head and concealed under the regrown hair. More modern examples of steganography
include the use of invisible ink (/wiki/Invisible_ink), microdots (/wiki/Microdot), and digital watermarks (/wiki/Digital_watermark) to
conceal information.
In India, the 2000-year-old Kamasutra (/wiki/Kamasutra) of Vātsyāyana (/wiki/V%C4%81tsy%C4%81yana) speaks of two different kinds
of ciphers called Kautiliyam and Mulavediya. In the Kautiliyam, the cipher letter substitutions are based on phonetic relations, such as
vowels becoming consonants. In the Mulavediya, the cipher alphabet consists of pairing letters and using the reciprocal ones.
In Sassanid Persia (/wiki/Sassanid_Persia), there were two secret scripts, according to the Muslim author Ibn al-Nadim (/wiki/Ibn_al-
Nadim): the
š
āh-dab
ī
r
ī
ya
(literally "King's script") which was used for official correspondence, and the
rāz-sahar
ī
ya
which was used to
communicate secret messages with other countries.
David Kahn (/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)) notes in
The Codebreakers (/wiki/The_Codebreakers)
that modern cryptology originated among
the Arabs (/wiki/Arabs), the first people to systematically document cryptanalytic methods. Al-Khalil (/wiki/Al-Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al-
Farahidi) (717–786) wrote the
Book of Cryptographic Messages
, which contains the first use of permutations and combinations
(/wiki/Permutations_and_combinations) to list all possible Arabic (/wiki/Arabic_language) words with and without vowels.
Ciphertexts produced by a classical cipher (/wiki/Classical_cipher) (and some modern ciphers) will
reveal statistical information about the plaintext, and that information can often be used to break the
cipher. After the discovery of frequency analysis (/wiki/Frequency_analysis), by the Arab mathematician
(/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam) and polymath (/wiki/Polymath) Al-Kindi (/wiki/Al-Kindi) (also
known as
Alkindus
) in the 9th century, nearly all such ciphers could be broken by an informed
attacker. Such classical ciphers still enjoy popularity today, though mostly as puzzles (/wiki/Puzzle). Al-
Kindi wrote a book on cryptography entitled
Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma
(
Manuscript for the
Deciphering Cryptographic Messages
), which described the first known use of frequency analysis and
cryptanalysis (/wiki/Cryptanalysis) techniques. An important contribution of Ibn Adlan
(/wiki/Ibn_Adlan) (1187–1268) was on sample size (/wiki/Sample_size) for use of frequency analysis.
Language letter frequencies may offer little help for some extended historical encryption techniques
such as homophonic cipher (/wiki/Substitution_cipher#Homophonic_substitution) that tend to flatten
the frequency distribution. For those ciphers, language letter group (or n-gram) frequencies may
provide an attack.
Essentially all ciphers remained vulnerable to cryptanalysis using the frequency analysis technique until
the development of the polyalphabetic cipher (/wiki/Polyalphabetic_cipher). While it was known to Al-
Kindi to some extent, it was first clearly described in the work of Al-Qalqashandi (/wiki/Al-
Qalqashandi) (1355–1418), based on the earlier work of Ibn al-Durayhim (/wiki/Ibn_al-Durayhim)
(1312–1359), describing a polyalphabetic cipher in which each plaintext letter is assigned more than
one substitute. It was later also described by Leon Battista Alberti (/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti)
around the year 1467, though there is some indication that Alberti's method was to use different
ciphers (i.e., substitution alphabets) for various parts of a message (perhaps for each successive
plaintext letter at the limit). He also invented what was probably the first automatic cipher device
(/wiki/Alberti_Cipher_Disk), a wheel which implemented a partial realization of his invention. In the
Vigenère cipher (/wiki/Vigen%C3%A8re_cipher), a polyalphabetic cipher, encryption uses a
key word
,
which controls letter substitution depending on which letter of the key word is used. In the mid-19th
century Charles Babbage (/wiki/Charles_Babbage) showed that the Vigenère cipher was vulnerable to
Kasiski examination (/wiki/Kasiski_examination), but this was first published about ten years later by
Friedrich Kasiski (/wiki/Friedrich_Kasiski).
Although frequency analysis can be a powerful and general technique against many ciphers,
encryption has still often been effective in practice, as many a would-be cryptanalyst was unaware of
the technique. Breaking a message without using frequency analysis essentially required knowledge of
the cipher used and perhaps of the key involved, thus making espionage, bribery, burglary, defection,
etc., more attractive approaches to the cryptanalytically uninformed. It was finally explicitly recognized
in the 19th century that secrecy of a cipher's algorithm is not a sensible nor practical safeguard of
message security; in fact, it was further realized that any adequate cryptographic scheme (including
[18]
[12]
[12]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22][23][24]
[22][25]
[21]
[25][26]
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