ERP设备使用与认知研究指南

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"ERP使用指导手册提供了关于事件相关电位设备使用的详细信息，是进行神经科学研究的重要参考资料。由多个知名机构的研究员共同编写，涵盖了ERP在认知研究中的记录标准和出版准则。" ERP（Event-Related Potentials）是神经科学领域的一种重要技术，它通过测量大脑对外部事件或内部心理过程的即时反应来研究认知功能。ERP技术能够提供毫秒级的时间分辨率，揭示大脑在处理信息时的精确时间顺序。本指导手册旨在帮助研究人员理解和应用ERP技术，确保实验的准确性和结果的可靠性。首先，手册详细阐述了ERP的记录标准。这包括电极位置的选择和标准化，通常基于国际10-20系统，确保电极位置的一致性以便于跨研究比较。此外，还涉及到了导联设置、参考电极的选择以及噪声过滤等步骤，这些对于获取高质量的ERP信号至关重要。记录过程中还需要考虑被试的舒适度和稳定性，以减少非特异性信号的影响。其次，手册讨论了ERP的分析方法。这涉及到平均技术的应用，通过将多次重复的ERP波形叠加以减小随机噪声，并提取出稳定的成分如P300、N400等。同时，也涉及了时频分析、源定位等进阶分析技术，帮助研究人员深入理解大脑活动的空间分布和动态变化。再者，手册提出了ERP研究的出版准则。这包括对实验设计的透明度，如样本大小的选择、实验条件的控制，以及统计分析的方法。此外，报告结果时应清晰展示ERP波形图、地形图和统计图表，确保同行评审的有效性和读者的理解。最后，手册可能还涵盖了ERP在不同认知领域的应用，如注意力、记忆、语言理解等。每个领域的研究都可能有其特定的ERP成分和分析策略，手册将为这些具体应用提供实践指导。 "ERP使用指导手册"是神经科学研究者的重要工具，不仅提供了ERP技术的实践指南，还强调了研究的科学性和可重复性。通过遵循其中的指导，研究人员可以更有效地利用ERP揭示大脑的工作机制，推动认知科学的发展。

(iv) The Gender of the Subjects Must Be Reported

Because gender affects many electrophysiological measurements,

the investigator must report how many of the subjects were male

and female, and must ensure that any group effects are not con-

founded by differences in the female0male ratios across groups.

When studying normal subjects, the investigator should generally

use either a similar number of female and male subjects or subjects

of one gender only. It is often worthwhile to include gender as an

experimental variable. If the experiment compares normal subjects

with subjects with a clinical disorder that is more common in one

gender, the male0female ratios should be approximately equivalent

across the two groups.

(v) Sensory and Motor Abilities Should Be Described

for the Stimuli Being Presented and the

Responses Being Recorded

This recommendation is to ensure that subjects can perceive the

stimuli normally. For most studies of normal young subjects, it is

sufficient to document that all subjects reported normal hearing or

vision ~with correction!. Such self-report is usually correct about

normal sensory ability. However, the accuracy of self-report will

depend on the type of questions asked. The answer to “Do you

have normal hearing?” is much less informative than answers to a

set of questions about hearing under different situations ~Coren &

Hakstian, 1992!.

In experiments designed specifically to evaluate perceptual

function, particularly in studies of disordered perception, more

intensive evaluations should be used to clarify what is normal or

to categorize levels of abnormality. For auditory stimuli, sub-

jects should be screened for normal hearing at 20 dB HL at the

frequencies tested. For visual stimuli, acuity should be measured

~with refractive correction! at a distance appropriate for the stim-

uli used. Because most visual stimuli are presented at close dis-

tances, acuity normally would be checked using Jaeger rather

than Snellen charts. If stimulus color is manipulated during the

experiment, color vision should be checked ~e.g., using one or

several Ishihara plates!. Unfortunately, there are no widely ac-

cepted quantitative screening tests for normal somatic, taste, or

smell sensations.

When subjects are making motor responses during the experi-

mental paradigms, the investigator should provide some basic de-

scription of the subjects’ ability to perform the task. It is usually

sufficient to ensure that the subjects report no history of weakness.

In all studies using motor responses, the handedness of the subject

should be reported and preferably measured using a validated

questionnaire.

(vi) The Subjects’ Cognitive Abilities Relevant

to the Tasks Being Studied Should Be Described

The experimenter should provide some basic assessments of the

subjects’ ability to perform the tasks being evaluated. In normal

subjects, the educational level is a reliable indicator of general

cognitive abilities, and descriptions of the subjects such as “un-

dergraduate students” is sufficient. However, this approach is in-

adequate in the context of clinical patients, children, and the elderly,

for whom more specific evaluations should be provided. For ex-

ample, mental status tests should be used when evaluating the

ERPs of demented patients, standardized reading assessments when

ERP paradigms that require reading are used in children, and neuro-

psychological tests of memory when ERPs are used to study mem-

ory disorders in the elderly.

(vii) Clinical Subjects Should Be Selected According to Clear

Diagnostic Criteria and the Clinical Samples Should Be Made

as Homogeneous as Possible

The selection criteria for clinical subjects should be explicitly stated.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiat-

ric Association ~American Psychiatric Association, 1994! provides

criteria for most psychiatric disorders. Diagnostic criteria for neuro-

logical disorders can be found in the relevant literature. When the

clinical disorder is heterogeneous ~e.g., schizophrenia, attention

deficit disorders!, the experimenter should attempt to limit the

subjects to one of the various subtypes of the disorder or to stratify

the patient sample according to the subtypes. The sample should

also be made as homogeneous as possible in terms of both the

duration and the severity of the disease process. It is never possible

to devise pure patient groupings. Nevertheless, some attempt should

be made to limit heterogeneity and any residual sources of hetero-

geneity should be described. In addition, the sample should be

characterized carefully with respect to demographic and psycho-

metric variables. For example, in a study of patients with dementia

of Alzheimer type, the investigator should include information

about the age and gender of each subject, along with data on

current mental status ~e.g., Mini-Mental State Examination!, pre-

morbid intelligence ~e.g., National Adult Reading Test!, and mem-

ory function ~e.g., selected subtests of the Wechsler Memory Scale!.

For patients with focal brain lesions, such data should also include

detailed information about the location and nature of the lesions.

(viii) Medications Used by Subjects Should Be Documented

In ERP studies of normal subjects, the investigator should make

sure that the subjects are not taking prescription medications that

may affect cognitive processes. It is probably also worthwhile not

to use subjects who have taken alcohol or other recreational drugs

within the preceding 24 hours. Because clinical patients are com-

monly treated with medications, it is often difficult to disentangle

the effects of the clinical disorder from the effects of the treatment.

Wherever possible, some control for medication should be at-

tempted. In some cases unmedicated patients can be studied. If the

patients have various dosages of medication, the level of medica-

tion should be considered in the statistical analysis, or preferably

in the experimental design ~e.g., selecting different subgroups of

patients with different medication levels!. Unfortunately, it is not

possible to use an analysis of covariance to remove the effects of

different medication levels ~or other variables! from other group

differences ~Chapman & Chapman, 1973, pp. 82–83; Miller, Chap-

man, & Isaacks, submitted!. An analysis of covariance can be used

to reduce the variability of measurements in groups that vary ran-

domly on the variable used as a covariate. However, if groups

differ on each of two variables, covarying out the effects of one

variable will distort any measurement of the effect of the other.

(ix) In Clinical Studies, Control Subjects Should Be Chosen

so That They Differ From the Experimental Subjects

Only on the Parameters Being Investigated

The selection criteria for the control subjects should be stated

clearly, as should the variables on which the control subjects and

patients have been matched. In general, the groups should be

matched for age, gender, socioeconomic status, and intelligence.

The premorbid intelligence of the patient group may be compared

with the actual intelligence of the control group using educational

level or some more formal psychological assessment such as the

National Adult Reading Test. Both control and experimental sub-

jects should be evaluated on standardized behavioral, psycholog-

ERP guidelines 131

ical, or neuropsychological tests. These tests should document how

the patients are equivalent to the control subjects in some areas but

not in others. Exclusion criteria must also be stated explicitly and

applied to both clinical and control groups. In many cases, a healthy

control group may not be sufficient. Clinical patients with disor-

ders different from those of the patients being studied are often

better controls than completely normal subjects. For example, in

studies of the effects of a specific focal brain lesion, a helpful

control group will consist of patients with lesions of a similar

etiology but outside the brain region of interest.

C. Stimuli and Responses

(i) The Stimuli Used in the Experiments Must Be Specified

in Sufficient Detail That They Can Be Replicated

by Other Scientists

The stimuli must be described accurately in terms of their intensity,

duration, and location. The guidelines for clinical evoked potential

studies ~American Electroencephalographic Society, 1994a! pro-

vide clear descriptions of the simple stimuli used in such studies.

Where possible, similar descriptions should be provided for the

stimuli used in all ERP studies. An extensive description of the

different stimuli that have been used in ERP studies and the way in

which these stimuli are described and calibrated is given in Regan

~1989, pp. 134–155!. Investigators using video displays to present

visual stimuli can consult Poynton ~1996!. All stimuli should be

calibrated in terms of their intensity and timing using appropriate

instrumentation ~e.g., a photoreceptor for visual stimuli and a mi-

crophone for auditory stimuli!. It is important to realize that the

presentation of a stimulus in one modality may be associated with

stimulation in another modality and the effects of this other stim-

ulus should be masked. For example, airpuff or strobe flash stimuli

are often associated with simultaneous acoustic artifacts. If deci-

bels are used to describe intensity, it is essential to provide the

reference level because decibels are meaningless without the ref-

erence. Common references in the auditory system are sound pres-

sure level ~a physical reference!, hearing level ~relative to normal

hearing! and sensation level ~relative to the individual’s threshold!.

(ii) The Timing of the Stimuli Must Be Described.

The minimum temporal parameters that should be described are

stimulus duration and the intervals between the stimuli. If the

experiment involves trials containing more than one stimulus, the

interval between the trials must also be given. The experimenter

should clarify whether the intervals are from onset to onset ~stim-

ulus onset asynchrony! or from the offset of the preceding stimulus

~or trial! to the onset of the next ~interstimulus or intertrial inter-

val!. If the subjects are expected to execute a motor response or to

provide a verbal response, the timing of these responses with re-

spect to the stimuli should be specified. The structure of the stim-

ulus sequences is also an important attribute of the experimental

design. Thus, investigators should specify whether trials are initi-

ated by the subject or by the experimenter. They should also spec-

ify the rules by which the stimulus sequences are generated ~e.g.,

completely random stimuli according to set probabilities, or random

stimuli with the proviso that no two targets occur in succession!.

Because human subjects are capable ~consciously or unconsciously!

of picking up regularities and rules of stimulus sequences, subtle

changes in these can lead to ERP effects.

Timing is a particular problem when using a video display. The

investigator should check the timing of these stimuli using a photo-

receptor. An apparently continuous stimulus is actually composed

of a series of discrete pulses as the raster process activates the

region of the screen beneath the receptor during each screen re-

fresh. The conversion of this stimulus into a sustained visual sen-

sation is described in Busey and Loftus ~1994, particularly Appendix

D!. Because the stimulus is composed of discrete pulses, there are

often discrepancies between the programmed onset and duration of

the stimulus and the actual stimulus parameters.

(iii) Aspects of the Stimuli Relevant to the Cognitive

Processes Being Examined Should Be Described

When words or other complex stimuli are used, they should be

selected keeping in mind which of their properties might affect

their processing. Because the number of trials necessary to record

ERPs is usually larger than the number of trials needed for behav-

ioral measurements,

extensive manipulation of stimulus param-

eters during an ERP paradigm is usually not possible and extra care

during stimulus selection is required. Factors such as familiarity,

word frequency, and meaning are of paramount importance when

studying the ERPs to words. If not manipulated in the experiment,

these factors should be controlled rigidly and kept constant across

conditions. Whenever possible, the stimuli should be rotated across

conditions to prevent any inadvertent confounding of some stim-

ulus parameter with the experimental manipulation. All the rele-

vant stimulus selection criteria and characteristics should be reported

~such as the mean and range of the number of letters, phonemes

and syllables composing the words, word frequency, and, where

relevant, the degree of semantic relatedness of the words!.Ifim-

ages or pictures are used, the investigator should specify whether

they are drawings or photographs, black and white or color. A

figure showing a sample image or images is worth more than many

words of description. For auditory stimuli, particularly when words

are used, provide the duration ~the range, mean, and standard

deviation! and the obvious measures such as intensity ~root-mean-

square @RMS#!, frequency, and male or female voice.

(iv) Responses Made by the Subjects Should Be Described

In many ERPparadigms, subjects make overt responses while their

ERPs are being recorded. In some paradigms, the ERPs are re-

corded in reference to these responses instead of or in addition to

the sensory stimuli. The investigator must clarify the stimulus-

response mapping required during the paradigm ~e.g., which but-

ton was pressed by which finger in response to which kind of

stimulus! and how this response was manipulated. The nature of

the response should be described in terms of the limb used to make

the response and the type of movement made. When the research

focuses on motor-related responses, the force, speed, and extent of

the movements should also be measured and reported.

D. Electrodes

(i) The Type of Electrode Should Be Specified

Because electrodes act as filters, they should be chosen so as not

to distort the ERP signals being measured. Nonpolarizable Ag0

AgCl electrodes can accurately record very slow changes in po-

tential ~e.g., Kutas, 1997; Rösler, Heil, & Hennighausen, 1995!,

Clear behavioral measurements can be obtained sometimes on single

trials ~e.g., yes-no decisions about whether a stimulus was perceived! but

this is usually not possible with ERPs. In behavioral studies, using more

subjects often compensates for the smaller number of trials per subject.

This method is not carried out in ERP studies because of the time involved

in preparing the subject for the recording.

132 T.W. Picton et al.

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