Structural insights on Smad function
in TGFb signaling
Yigong Shi
Summary
TGFb signaling plays a central role in regulating a broad
range of cellular responses in a variety of organisms.
TGFb signaling from the cell membrane to the nucleus is
mediated by the Smad family of proteins. During the past
five years of intense investigation, key events in TGFb
signaling have been documented at the molecular and
cellular level. Recent structural studies have improved
our understanding of how specificity is generated in the
TGFb signaling pathways. Despite this progress, signifi-
cant questions remain regarding the precise mechanisms
of signaling and point to the urgent need for well-
controlled biochemical studies. Rather than giving a
comprehensive review on Smad-mediated TGFb signal-
ing, this review focuses on functional insights provided
by recent structural studies and discusses several
existing controversies. BioEssays 23:223±232, 2001.
ß 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Introduction
The
Transforming Growth Factor b (TGFb) superfamily
consists of a diverse group of secreted polypeptides char-
acterized by three conserved pairs of disulfide bonds.
(1)
Members of the TGFb family regulate a diverse set of cellular
processes, including cell proliferation, recognition, differentia-
tion, apoptosis, and specification of developmental fate, in
species ranging from worms to mammals.
(1,2)
In Drosophila,
the decapentaplegic (dpp) gene plays a key role in multiple
developmental events, including dorsal-ventral patterning and
larval gut morphogenesis.
(3±5)
In Xenopus, BMP2/4 and
activin induce formation of ventral and dorsal mesoderm,
respectively;
(6)
in mammalian cells, activin and TGFb can
trigger cell-cycle arrest, differentiation, apoptosis, and other
responses.
(7)
The first intracellular mediator of TGFb signaling was
identified in a genetic screen for genes required to maximize
decapentaplegic (dpp) signaling in Drosophila and named
Mothers Against Decapentaplegic,orMAD.
(8,9)
Subsequently,
three proteins in C. elegans, Sma2, Sma3, and Sma4, all with
strong homology to the Drosophila MAD, were found to
mediate TGFb signaling.
(10)
The first vertebrate homologue
was reported to be a human tumor suppressor DPC4 (Deleted
in Pancreatic Carcinoma, locus 4) in early 1996.
(11)
Since then,
the number of vertebrate family members has increased
greatly, and they have been given a unified name ``Smad'' for
homology to Sma and MAD.
(12)
At least nine distinct Smad
proteins have been discovered.
(13± 17)
The Smad proteins are functionally divided into three
distinct classes: (i) the co-mediator Smads (co-Smads),
namely Smad4 in mammals and Smad10 (also known as
Smad4b)inXenopus, which participate in signaling by diverse
TGFb family members, (ii) the receptor-regulated Smads
(R-Smads), including Smad1, Smad2, Smad3, Smad5, and
Smad8, each of which is involved in a ligand-specific signal-
ing pathway, and (iii) the antagonistic or inhibitory Smads
(I-Smads), including Smad6 and Smad7, which negatively
regulate these pathways by preventing receptor-mediated
phosphorylation of the R-Smads or formation of a functional
complex between R-Smads and Co-Smads.
(14)
The Smad
proteins, about 400±500 amino acids in length, are conserved
both within and across species, with particularly high similarity
in the N-terminal MH1 domain and the C-terminal MH2
domain, and minimal similarity in a variable-length interven-
ing linker region.
(2,13)
The MH2 domain of certain Smads is
responsible for receptor interaction, transactivation, and
homo- and hetero-oligomerization, whereas the MH1 domain
of certain Smads exhibits sequence-specific DNA-binding
activity and negatively regulates the functions of the MH2
domain. The DNA-binding activity of Smad MH1 is required for
proper activation of agonist-responsive genes, and mutation
of Smad-binding sequences in TGFb response elements led
to abolishment of TGFb responsiveness.
TGFb signaling is initiated by the binding of a specific
cytokine to a pair of specific transmembrane receptors,
leading to the phosphorylation and activation of the cytoplas-
mic Ser/Thr kinase domains of these receptors (Fig. 1).
(14,18)
The signal is transferred to the R-Smads through the receptor
kinase-mediated phosphorylation of the C-terminal SSXS
motif. For examples, Smad1, Smad5, and Smad8 are
phosphorylated by the BMP receptors, whereas Smad2 and
Smad3 are phosphorylated by the activin/TGFb receptors.
The signal is then propagated primarily through protein±
protein interactions among Smad proteins and between
Smads and transcription factors in the nucleus (Fig. 1). The
phosphorylated Smad hetero-oligomerizes with the ubiquitous
BioEssays 23:223±232, ß 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. BioEssays 23.3 223
Department of Molecular Biology, Lewis Thomas Laboratory,
Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544.
E-mail: yshi@molbio.princeton.edu
Review articles