Oracle Database 11gR2官方概念手册：权威指南

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Oracle Database 11g Release 2 (11.2) 是Oracle公司于2010年发布的官方概念手册，版权归属于Oracle及其关联公司。该手册由Lance Ashdown和Tom Kyte为主要作者，还有多位贡献者如Drew Adams、David Austin等人共同编写。内容涵盖了Oracle数据库的核心概念和技术细节，旨在帮助用户深入了解Oracle数据库的11gR2版本特性和最佳实践。在11gR2中，Oracle Database 提供了先进的功能和优化，包括但不限于： 1. **安全性增强**：该版本强化了数据库的安全性，包括身份验证、授权和审计功能，以保护数据安全和隐私。 2. **内存优化**：11gR2引入了Advanced Query Optimizer (AQO) 和 Automatic Workload Repository (AWR)，提高了查询性能，通过自动分析工作负载来优化资源分配。 3. **Real Application Clusters (RAC)**：支持高可用性和可扩展性，允许多个节点共享数据，提高系统的可靠性。 4. **数据存储与管理**：Oracle Data Pump和Data Guard等功能提供高效的数据备份、恢复和迁移解决方案。 5. **SQL优化和性能调优**：书中详细介绍了如何通过编写高效的SQL语句、调整参数和配置来优化查询执行速度。 6. **列式存储和分区技术**：这些特性可以提高特定查询操作的速度，尤其是处理大量数据时。 7. **PL/SQL编程语言**：手册深入讲解了PL/SQL语言的特性和最佳实践，有助于开发者编写更健壮、高效的代码。 8. **网格计算和分布式计算**：11gR2支持网格基础设施，使用户能够利用分布式资源进行大规模数据处理和复杂计算任务。 9. **数据库管理工具**：包括Enterprise Manager和SQL Developer等工具，便于监控、管理和维护数据库环境。 10. **合规性和标准支持**：符合各种行业标准和法规要求，如SOX、HIPAA等，确保数据管理和使用符合法律要求。 11. **升级和迁移指南**：手册提供了详尽的升级和迁移策略，帮助用户平滑过渡到新的数据库版本。 Oracle Database 11gR2概念手册作为官方文档，不仅适合系统管理员、数据库开发人员，也是DBA和学习Oracle技术的初学者的重要参考资源。阅读和理解这个手册将有助于提升用户对Oracle数据库体系结构、工作原理以及如何最大化其性能和效率的理解。

About Relational Databases

1-2 Oracle Database Concepts

■ Hierarchical

A hierarchical database organizes data in a tree structure. Each parent record has

one or more child records, similar to the structure of a file system.

■ Network

A network database is similar to a hierarchical database, except records have a

many-to-many rather than a one-to-many relationship.

The preceding database management systems stored data in rigid, predetermined

relationships. Because no data definition language existed, changing the structure of

the data was difficult. Also, these systems lacked a simple query language, which

hindered application development.

Relational Model

In his seminal 1970 paper "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks,"

E. F. Codd defined a relational model based on mathematical set theory. Today, the

most widely accepted database model is the relational model.

A relational database is a database that conforms to the relational model. The

relational model has the following major aspects:

■ Structures

Well-defined objects store or access the data of a database.

■ Operations

Clearly defined actions enable users to manipulate the data and structures of a

database.

■ Integrity rules

Integrity rules govern operations on the data and structures of a database.

A relational database stores data in a set of simple relations. A relation is a set of

tuples. A tuple is an unordered set of attribute values.

A table is a two-dimensional representation of a relation in the form of rows (tuples)

and columns (attributes). Each row in a table has the same set of columns. A relational

database is a database that stores data in relations (tables). For example, a relational

database could store information about company employees in an employee table, a

department table, and a salary table.

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

The relational model is the basis for a relational database management system

(RDBMS). Essentially, an RDBMS moves data into a database, stores the data, and

retrieves it so that it can be manipulated by applications. An RDBMS distinguishes

between the following types of operations:

■ Logical operations

In this case, a user specifies what content is required. For example, a user requests

the names of all employees or adds an employee record to a table.

■ Physical operations

See Also:

http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=362685 for an

abstract and link to Codd's paper

About Relational Databases

Introduction to Oracle Database 1-3

In this case, the RDBMS determines how things should be done and carries out the

operation. For example, after a user queries a table, the database may use an index

to find the requested rows, read the data blocks into memory, and perform many

other steps before returning a result to the user. The RDBMS stores and retrieves

data so that physical operations are transparent to database applications.

Oracle Database is an RDBMS. An RDBMS that implements object-oriented features

such as user-defined types, inheritance, and polymorphism is called an

object-relational database management system (ORDBMS). Oracle Database has

extended the relational model to an object-relational model, making it possible to store

complex business models in a relational database.

Brief History of Oracle Database

The current version of Oracle Database is the result of over 30 years of innovative

development. Highlights in the evolution of Oracle Database include the following:

■ Founding of Oracle

In 1977, Larry Ellison, Bob Miner, and Ed Oates started the consultancy Software

Development Laboratories, which became Relational Software, Inc. (RSI). In 1983,

RSI became Oracle Systems Corporation and then later Oracle Corporation.

■ First commercially available RDBMS

In 1979, RSI introduced Oracle V2 (Version 2) as the first commercially available

SQL-based RDBMS, a landmark event in the history of relational databases.

■ Portable version of Oracle Database

Oracle Version 3, released in 1983, was the first relational database to run on

mainframes, minicomputers, and PCs. The database was written in C, enabling the

database to be ported to multiple platforms.

■ Enhancements to concurrency control, data distribution, and scalability

Version 4 introduced multiversion read consistency. Version 5, released in 1985,

supported client/server computing and distributed database systems. Version 6

brought enhancements to disk I/O, row locking, scalability, and backup and

recovery. Also, Version 6 introduced the first version of the PL/SQL language, a

proprietary procedural extension to SQL.

■ PL/SQL stored program units

Oracle7, released in 1992, introduced PL/SQL stored procedures and triggers.

■ Objects and partitioning

Oracle8 was released in 1997 as the object-relational database, supporting many

new data types. Additionally, Oracle8 supported partitioning of large tables.

■ Internet computing

Oracle8i Database, released in 1999, provided native support for internet protocols

and server-side support for Java. Oracle8i was designed for internet computing,

enabling the database to be deployed in a multitier environment.

■ Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC)

Oracle9i Database introduced Oracle RAC in 2001, enabling multiple instances to

access a single database simultaneously. Additionally, Oracle XML Database

(Oracle XML DB) introduced the ability to store and query XML.

■ Grid computing

Schema Objects

1-4 Oracle Database Concepts

Oracle Database 10g introduced grid computing in 2003. This release enabled

organizations to virtualize computing resources by building a grid infrastructure

based on low-cost commodity servers. A key goal was to make the database

self-managing and self-tuning. Oracle Automatic Storage Management (Oracle

ASM) helped achieve this goal by virtualizing and simplifying database storage

management.

■ Manageability, diagnosability, and availability

Oracle Database 11g, released in 2007, introduced a host of new features that

enable administrators and developers to adapt quickly to changing business

requirements. The key to adaptability is simplifying the information infrastructure

by consolidating information and using automation wherever possible.

Schema Objects

One characteristic of an RDBMS is the independence of physical data storage from

logical data structures. In Oracle Database, a database schema is a collection of logical

data structures, or schema objects. A database schema is owned by a database user

and has the same name as the user name.

Schema objects are user-created structures that directly refer to the data in the

database. The database supports many types of schema objects, the most important of

which are tables and indexes.

Tables

A table describes an entity such as employees. You define a table with a table name,

such as employees, and set of columns. In general, you give each column a name, a

data type, and a width when you create the table.

A table is a set of rows. A column identifies an attribute of the entity described by the

table, whereas a row identifies an instance of the entity. For example, attributes of the

employees entity correspond to columns for employee ID and last name. A row

identifies a specific employee.

You can optionally specify rules for each column of a table. These rules are called

integrity constraints. One example is a NOT NULL integrity constraint. This constraint

forces the column to contain a value in every row.

Indexes

An index is an optional data structure that you can create on one or more columns of a

table. Indexes can increase the performance of data retrieval. When processing a

request, the database can use available indexes to locate the requested rows efficiently.

Indexes are useful when applications often query a specific row or range of rows.

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