深紫外CCD图像传感器：退化行为与损伤机制探讨

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《CCD图像传感器在深紫外光下的行为与损伤机制》是一本深入探讨微电子技术与微机械系统系列（Microtechnology and MEMS）中的重要著作，由Flora M. Li 和 Arokia Nathan 编写。该书聚焦于现代活跃的微系统和微技术领域，特别是针对CCD（Charge-Coupled Device）图像传感器在深紫外光环境下的性能研究。第一章详细介绍了CCD图像传感器的基本原理和工作原理，包括它们如何捕捉、存储和转换光信号，以及在成像过程中的关键特性。CCD传感器因其高灵敏度和稳定性，在光学成像领域有着广泛应用。第二章和第三章讨论了硅(Si)、二氧化硅(SiO2)材料以及Si-SiO2界面的不稳定性，这些因素对CCD性能的影响至关重要。紫外线辐射，特别是深紫外光，会引发硅材料的光损伤，导致电子迁移、缺陷生成等现象。第四章深入探讨了紫外线辐射如何作用于Si-SiO2系统，包括光致退化和光致氧化等效应，这些过程会直接影响到CCD传感器的量子效率、响应速度和长期可靠性。第五章是本书的核心部分，专门研究深紫外光下CCD传感器的具体交互作用。作者分析了深紫外光如何穿透和被吸收，以及这些光谱特性如何影响传感器的像素结构、电路设计和整体性能。可能涉及到的损伤机制包括光诱导的缺陷、氧化层变薄和电子陷阱的形成。最后，作者在第六章总结了研究成果，并提出了未来的研究方向，包括寻找抗辐射材料和设计策略来提高深紫外CCD传感器的耐用性和性能，以及探索新型传感器结构以适应更严苛的环境条件。《CCD Image Sensors in Deep-Ultraviolet》提供了对深紫外光环境下CCD传感器行为和损伤机制的全面理解，对于科研人员、工程师和高级学生来说，这是一本宝贵的参考资料，帮助他们了解并改进这一关键技术在极端环境应用中的表现。

4 1 Introduction

dioxide (SiO

), and Si-SiO

interface. On irradiation, the Si substrate, the

SiO

layer and the Si-SiO

interface can interact with incoming photons to

subject the CCDs to a variety of eﬀects or damage. Part III discusses the

general eﬀects of radiation on Si-SiO

system and on CCDs. This provides

the background to understand the type of defects and reactions that can arise

from radiation in Si-SiO

materials. Material interactions with UV radiation

are considered in Part IV to build a foundation for studying the causes of

the instabilities in CCDs speciﬁcally at DUV wavelengths. The ﬁndings gath-

ered from the various scientiﬁc research areas are assembled to identify the

mechanisms of the CCD behavior in DUV.

In addition to understanding instabilities, a new and more economical

technique that enhances the DUV sensitivity of frontside-illuminated linear

CCDs is introduced. This technique involves thinning the overlying oxide on

the top of the imaging area (i.e., the photodiode) of the linescan sensor to

reduce the absorption of the DUV photons in the SiO

layer. For simplicity,

the discussion of thinned front-illuminated sensors here is conﬁned to CCD

structures with no polysilicon on the imaging region; namely, photodiode-

based linear CCD architecture. As a result, the research focuses on the con-

cerns associated with the DUV-induced eﬀects in the SiO

layer, not the

issues that can arise from the polysilicon layer. The characterization of this

frontside-thinned front-illuminated linear CCD structure at the DUV wave-

length of 157 nm is presented in Part V. By using the theories presented in

the preceding chapters, the possible causes and origins of the observed CCD

behavior in DUV are revealed. A better understanding of the mechanisms

behind the DUV-induced degradation of CCD sensors can assist in the de-

sign and development of new-and-improved DUV-sensitive CCD sensors in

the future. Finally, the signiﬁcance of the ﬁndings of the research in this book

are summarized and future research activities are suggested.

2 Overview of CCD

CCD is the abbreviation for charge-coupled device. CCD image sensors are

silicon-based integrated circuits (ICs), consisting of a dense matrix of pho-

todiodes or photogates that operate by converting light energy, in the form

of photons, into electronic charges [11]. For example, when an UV, visible or

infrared (IR) photon strikes a silicon (Si) atom in or near a CCD photosite,

the photon usually produces a free electron and a hole via the photoelectric

eﬀect. The primary function of the CCD is to collect the photogenerated

electrons in its “potential wells”(or pixels) during the CCD’s exposure to

radiation, and the hole is then forced away from the potential well and is

eventually displaced into the Si substrate. The more light that is incident

on a particular pixel, the higher the number of electrons that accumulate

on that pixel. By varying the CCD gate voltages, the depth of the potential

wells can be modiﬁed. This action enables the transfer of the photogenerated

electrons across the registers to the “read-out” circuit. The output signal is

then transferred to the computer for image regeneration or image process-

ing. Figure 2.1 denotes that a typical CCD sensor consists of a sandwich of

semiconductor layers that are overlaid with a network of gates (or electrodes)

to control the transfer of the signal charges from the pixels to the read-out

circuitry at the output node [11].

The pixels in a CCD sensor can be arranged in various conﬁgurations.

Figure 2.2 displays two classic CCD architectures: a linear CCD and an area

array CCD. A linear (or linescan) CCD sensor consists of a single line of

pixels, adjacent to a CCD shift register that is required for the read-out of

the charge packets. The isolation between the pixels and the CCD register is

achieved by a transfer gate. Typically, the pixels of a linear CCD are formed

by the photodiodes. The CCD shift register is composed of a series of MOS

(metal-oxide-semiconductor) capacitors arranged closely across the Si wafer

so that the charge can be moved from one capacitor to the next as eﬃciently

as possible. The MOS capacitors are formed by depositing a highly conductive

layer of polysilicon on top of the insulating layer of silicon dioxide (SiO

)that

covers the Si substrate [11]. Figure 2.1 provides a cross-sectional view of a

linescan CCD sensor.

After the integration of the charge carriers in the photodiodes (i.e., the ex-

posure period), the transfer gate is raised to a high voltage to simultaneously

8 2 Overview of CCD

n+ n+

CCD

Gates

Transfer

Gate

Incoming

Photons

Pixel

Reset

Gate

Drain

Voltage

Control

Buried

hannel

Lateral

Overflow

Drain

Potential

Barrier

Photodiode

Integrated

Charge

Potential Well

p-Silicon

CCD Charge

Transfer

Potential Well

VPR (Drain)

Photodiode CCD

Sil

Oxide

Fig. 2.1. The anatomy of a CCD sensor. The conﬁguration corresponds to a

photodiode-based linear CCD (adapted from [11])

transfer the charges in all the pixels in a parallel manner toward the CCD

shift register, as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2.2(a). When the transfer

gate voltage returns to its oﬀ state, a new integration period begins. At the

same time, the charge packets are transferred through the CCD shift register

toward the output of the device in a serial fashion. The CCD shift register

must be shielded from the incoming light to avoid disturbing the number of

carriers in the charge packet [12]. During the imaging operations, the linear

CCD sensor is placed along a single axis so that the scanning occurs in only

one direction. A line of information from the scene is captured at each inte-

gration period, and subsequently read out of the device before stepping to

the next line index. An example of linescan imaging is the fax machine. For

the purpose of the study in this book, photodiode-based linescan CCDs are

used for the DUV experiments in Chap. 12.

Two-dimensional imaging is possible with area array CCD sensors; the

entire image is captured with one exposure, eliminating the need for any

movement by the sensor or the scene. An example of a compact and simple

full-frame area sensor is illustrated in Fig. 2.2(b). The area sensor is com-

posed of an array of photogates (i.e., MOS photocapacitors) that provide

both the charge collection and charge transfer functionalities for the CCD

sensor. The gate electrode of the photogate is fabricated from polysilicon. A

set of parallel light-sensitive CCD registers that is composed of photogates

is oriented vertically and is denoted as the vertical CCD registers (VCCD).

A simple cross-sectional view of a photogate-based CCD register is depicted

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深紫外CCD图像传感器：退化行为与损伤机制探讨

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