学习理论精要：wikibooks开源教材

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"学习理论是关于如何获取、处理和应用知识的科学，它在机器学习领域扮演着核心角色。本书是学习理论的经典著作，被高度推荐给对机器学习有兴趣的读者。书中涵盖了从传统的心理学学习理论到现代的计算学习理论的各种观点。" 学习理论是理解和改进智能系统学习能力的基础，特别是在机器学习领域。它探讨了如何通过经验改善性能，以及如何设计算法来模拟这种学习过程。在机器学习中，学习理论主要分为监督学习、无监督学习、强化学习和半监督学习等几个大类。监督学习是学习理论的一个关键分支，它涉及通过已标记的训练数据来预测未知数据的标签。例如，经典的线性回归和逻辑回归模型就是监督学习的应用。无监督学习则不依赖于预先标记的数据，而是寻找数据集中的内在结构或模式，如聚类算法用于将相似数据点分组。强化学习则关注智能体与环境的交互，通过试错学习策略以最大化奖励。学习理论也研究了几个关键概念，如泛化能力，这是衡量模型在未见过的数据上表现的能力。过拟合和欠拟合是学习过程中常见的问题，前者指模型过于复杂，对训练数据过度适应，而后者则表示模型过于简单，无法捕获数据的复杂性。正则化是解决过拟合的一种方法，通过引入惩罚项限制模型的复杂度。书中可能还讨论了学习算法的收敛性，即算法能否在有限的步骤内达到最优解。此外，学习理论还涵盖了贝叶斯学习，其中先验知识和观测数据共同决定模型参数。贝叶斯网络和马尔可夫决策过程（MDP）是这一领域的典型例子。学习理论不仅仅是理论探讨，还包括实用的优化技术，如梯度下降法、随机梯度下降法和牛顿法，这些方法常用于训练复杂的神经网络。同时，深度学习作为现代机器学习的热点，其背后的反向传播算法也是基于学习理论的发展。最后，学习理论与计算复杂性理论和信息论有着密切联系。计算复杂性理论关注算法的时间和空间效率，而信息论提供了量化信息和压缩数据的工具，这些在构建高效学习系统时至关重要。这本书的内容可能涵盖了以上各个主题，并且通过实际案例和练习帮助读者深入理解学习理论在实践中的应用。由于资料来源于Wikibooks.org，这意味着读者可以自由地访问、分享和修改这些知识，这符合开放源码和共享知识的精神。书中可能还包含了其他开源许可，如GPL、LGPL和GFDL，鼓励读者参与和完善这部作品。

Constructivist

2.2 Constructivism deﬁned

Constructivism is a synthesis of multiple theories diﬀused into one form. It is the assimilation

of both behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The “constructivist stance maintains that learning

is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience” (Merriam

and Caﬀarella, 1999, p. 260). This is a combination eﬀect of using a person’s cognitive

abilities and insight to understand their environment. This coincides especially well with

current adult learning theory. This concept is easily translated into a self-directed learning

style, where the individual has the ability to take in all the information and the environment

of a problem and learn. Constructivism reﬂects the organismic world view (Goldhaber,

2000).Compared with behaviorism which is originated from the mechanistic world view,

constructivism concerns how change occurs in development. For behaviorists, change comes

about when an external force acts upon an object that is inherently at rest. For organismic

theorists, behavioral change is inherent in the living organism itself rather than extremely

driven.

Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) educators, constructivism does

not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. Constructivism

modiﬁes that role, so that teachers help students to construct knowledge, rather than to

reproduce a series of facts. Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory

that compels students to "reinvent the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers

the student

s innate curiosity about the world and how things work. And then, students

create organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning settings.

2.3 View points

Although varying constructivist theories exist, there is agreement between the theories

“that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their

experience” (Merriam & Caﬀarella, 1999, p. 261). Two viewpoints of constructivist theories

exist. They include the individual constructivist view and the social constructivist view.

The individualist constructivist view understands learning to be an intrinsically personal

process whereby “meaning is made by the individual and is dependent upon the individual’s

previous and current knowledge structure” (p. 261) and as a result can be considered an

“internal cognitive activity” (p. 262). The social constructivist view, however, premises that

learning is constructed through social interaction and discourse and is considered, according

to Drivers and others (1994), to be a process in which meaning is made dialogically (Merriam

& Caﬀarella, 1999).

2.4 Constructivist theory and independent learning

When applying this theory to independent learning, it is essential to understand that we need

to consider the cultural environment in which this learning takes place. Isolated learning is

an oxymoron. Merriam and Caﬀarella (1999) suggest that adult learning, while self-directed,

must have input from outside inﬂuences. That may take the form of investigation, social

interaction, or more formal learning environments.

See Also

The constructivistic learning approach involves educators building school curriculum around

the experience of their students. Constructivists believe learner-centric instructional class-

room methods will strengthen the commitment and involvement of self-motivated learners

because of their high level of interaction. Today, there is a trend for incorporating technology

into the classrooms to support instructional learning methods. Yet, recent studies have

revealed technology is not eﬀectively integrated with the concepts of constructivism (Hare

et al, 2005).

Nevertheless, constructivistic methods of instruction with using computer technology have

developed to meet the instructional goals and conditions. One of the most powerful and

versatile tools is the web-based learning. The web-based learning provides learners with

optimal learning environment. They can be exposed to the multiple perspectives through

collaborative social negotiation within peers or teachers. Additionally, in spite of PC games

which originally have not been developed for instructional purposes, even in games such as

games for virtual ﬂight simulation or city planning simulation, learners can be exposed to

the complex or probable environments. In order to improve the problem-solving skills, it

is important for learners to be exposed to complex environments. Constructivism might

be broad learning theory because it is synthesized with multiple theories into a single form.

Thus it is evident that the method of instruction using technology can be applied with

various approaches.

Constructivist theory

s (J. Bruner) main theme is that learning is a process in which the

learner is able to build on present and previous information. The student is able to take

information, create ideas and make choices by utilizing a thought process. The trainer

should encourage the student to develop the skills to ﬁnd out principles on their own. There

should be on-going dialog between the student and the trainer. The trainer is responsible

for making sure the information is in a format the student can comprehend. The key is to

assure the course builds on what has already been learned.

Constructivists think that learners build knowledge actively through the interactions with

environmental stimuli. In other words, learning focuses on the learners

questions and

exposure. Assessment should avoid standardized tests and grades such as achievement tests

designed with multiple choices to test subject-speciﬁc knowledge. Assessment appears in the

learning process, so students play an important role in examining their own progress.

2.5 See Also

• John Holt

• Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process

• Deﬁnition(s) & Reading Links:

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html

• Constructivist Models:

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/John%20Holt

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary%20Educational%20Psychology%2FChapter%202%

3A%20The%20Learning%20Process

3 Post-Modern

3.1 Overview

Postmodernism, by the nature of the movement itself, is not easy to deﬁne. To understand

postmodernism in the context of adult learning, it may be beneﬁcial to ﬁrst understand that

the postmodern movement is much larger than adult learning. It is inclusive of a wide variety

of disciplines and areas of study including art, architecture, music, ﬁlm, literature, sociology,

communications, fashion, technology, and education (Klages, 2003). Because postmodernism

is as much a philosophical movement as it is a learning theory, it is impossible to discuss the

movement without also discussing the underlying philosophy and ubiquity of the postmodern

movement.

Post-modernism diﬀers from most approaches to learning in two fundamental ways. The ﬁrst

is that rationality and logic are not important to attaining knowledge. The second is that

knowledge can be contradictory. Because of the contextual nature of knowledge, individuals

can hold two completely incongruent views of one subject at the same time (Kilgore, 2001).

Post-modernism relates to post-industrialism. The industrial era came about as a result of

Newtonian thinking – an era wherein thought and processes were considered in mechanistic

terms of eﬃciency and eﬀectiveness and understood scientiﬁcally through the processes of

reductionism (the simpliﬁcation of the complex into understandable, and at times oversimplis-

tic terms). The learning gleaned from the industrial (modern) era laid a foundation for the

world to add new knowledge through a new era - what is now termed as the “post-modern”

era. Presently, several post-modern theories exist, but at the core of each of these theories is

the basic concept that what was once only understood within the context of reductionism is

now beginning to be understood within the context of interrelatedness - an understanding

that “things are much more diverse, ﬂuid, illusionary, and contested, including the reality of

the world itself” (Merriam & Caﬀarella, 1999, p. 356) than originally thought.

Though truth is central to postmodern thinking, it is not the search for truth that is valued.

In contrast, the postmodern mind challenges what is accepted truth. According to Astley

(1985) and Gergen (1992), as cited in Dierkes et. al. (2003), postmodernists challenge "the

conventional wisdom, routines, static meanings, and axioms of

normal

science, thereby

exposing knowledge to non-dogmatic forms of thought" (p. 44). One can see how this

philosophy has become embraced in academia and one could argue that it is the primary

modus operandi in many institutions of higher learning, especially in philosophy and the

humanities.

The postmodern approach to learning is founded upon the assertion that there is not one

kind of learner, not one particular goal for learning, not one way in which learning takes

place, nor one particular environment where learning occurs (Kilgore, 2001).

Kilgore (2001) makes several assertions about the postmodern view of knowledge:

Post-Modern

1. Knowledge is tentative, fragmented, multifaceted and not necessarily rational.

2. Knowledge is socially constructed and takes form in the eyes of the knower.

3. Knowledge is contextual rather than “out there” waiting to be discovered.

Hence, knowledge can shift as quickly as the context shifts, the perspective of the knower

shifts, or as events overtake us.

The label of postmodernism deﬁnes a shift in culture that occurs over time. This can

be understood best through deﬁning causality, an understanding of cultural shifts, and

collecting the basic overall concept of postmodernism.

3.2 Deﬁning causality (What causes shifts)

Ultimately, shifts occur through modes of communication. The largest shift in the past

century is the development of a global community through the use of internet. Past shifts in

society have also connected to modes of communication. Technology shifts like Guttenberg

and his creation of the printing press gave the power of books into the hands of the common

people. This empowerment of information started a shift in society that aﬀected the world.

3.3 Cultural shifts (How it occurs)

Cultural shifts happen in waves. Postmodernism as a cultural shift began its shift as early

as the 1930

s and 1940

s in conversations about postmodernism and architecture. Over time

the concepts and ideas that are on the fringe of society will aﬀect conversations, artistic

pieces, and eventually become pervasive on a large enough scale to aﬀect the whole of a

society.

3.4 The current debate (The basic deﬁnitions of PoMo)

In postmodernism everything is relative and is deconstructive. The division of the term

postmodernism breaks down into two major parts, post and modernism. Post is built philo-

sophically on thoughts from multiple arenas, and varied sources, who use deconstructionism

as a modus-operandi. The idea of postmodernism is not to know what you are not, but to

not really know what you are. What postmodernism is not is modernism. It is an after eﬀect

of the modernistic era that capitalized on individuality, built on absolutes, and the scientiﬁc

method as it

s structure. Postmodernism in its current form is still developing and is not

completed. Leonard Sweet and other futurists say this wave will be complete somewhere in

the range of 2020, shifting the society from modernism into what it will become. All that

may be understood at this stage is what the society on the fringes is saying we are not,

which is modernism.

Deconstruction is a powerful postmodern tool for questioning prevailing representations

of learners and learning. According to Kilgore (2001), the purpose of deconstruction is to

identify and discredit the false binaries that structure a communication or “discourse”; that

is, to challenge the assertions of what is to be included or excluded as normal, right, or good.

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学习理论精要：wikibooks开源教材

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