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首页3GPP物联网技术:EC-GSM-IoT、LTE-M与NB-IoT标准与性能详解
3GPP物联网技术:EC-GSM-IoT、LTE-M与NB-IoT标准与性能详解
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《物联网蜂窝通信:技术、标准与性能》一书深入探讨了在信息和通信技术领域崭露头角的物联网(IoT)的最新进展。该书由3GPP(第三代合作伙伴计划)在Release 13中开发的三种新型技术——扩展覆盖GSM物联网(EC-GSM-IoT)、专为机器类型通信(LTE-M)设计的LTE和窄带物联网(NB-IoT)组成,这些技术旨在为大量物联网设备提供蜂窝服务,从而推动行业的增长。 第一章介绍了全书的总体内容,概述了3GPP在机器类型通信领域的成就,为读者构建了一个全面的背景。随后的章节详细阐述了这三种技术的设计目标和技术基础,包括物理层原理以及设备在空闲模式和连接模式下的操作流程。 第三章至第七章重点关注EC-GSM-IoT,第五章和第八章则分别针对LTE-M和NB-IoT的技术性能进行深入剖析。作者提供了对覆盖范围、吞吐量、延迟、电池寿命、系统容量和设备复杂度等关键性能指标的详尽评估,并解释了这些评估方法背后的细节。 第九章是对前几章内容的总结,比较了三种技术的优势,讨论了它们在5G无线通信系统愿景中的角色。此外,该章还提出了短距离和长距离通信在无许可频段中运行的解决方案,并强调了许可运营相较于无许可运营的优劣势。 最后,第十章给出了物联网蜂窝通信在全球5G通信系统框架中的全景视角,展示了其在连接万物互联愿景中的定位和潜力。这本书不仅涵盖了技术的详细介绍,还提供了实用的分析和策略,对于理解并利用这些新兴技术的开发者、运营商和政策制定者来说,是一本不可或缺的参考文献。
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The introduction of the smartphone not only changed the usage of the phone but also had a pro-
found impact on the requirements on the underlying communication systems providing the wireless
connectivity. For a classic mobile phone supporting voice and text messages, the most important re-
quirements are acceptable voice quality and reliable delivery of messages. Since the introduction of the
smartphone, expectations go far beyond this and requirements in terms of, e.g., high data rates and low
latency have become more prominent. The requirements set by the ITU on the world’s first 4G systems
were also to a significant extent shaped by this and focused on the ability of the candidate solutions to
provide mobile broadband services. For base station to device transmission, a peak downlink data rate
of 1.5 Gbit/100 MHz/s was one of the ITU targets. For the uplink direction, i.e., transmission from the
device to the base station, the target was slight ly relaxed to 675 Mbit/100 MHz/s. A latency of less than
10 ms was another important requirement intended to secure an acceptable mobile broadband expe-
rience [5].
With the introduction of Machine-to-Machine (M2M), MTC, and IoT applications and services,
the expectations as well as the set of requirements placed on the mobile communication technologies
changed again. A not too advanced smartphone user may, for example, stream several gigabits of data
every month with high requirements on quality of experience while it may be sufficient for an average
utility meter to access the network once per day to send the latest billing information of a few bytes to a
centralized billing system. The requirements associated with M2M and IoT services are not, however,
only being relaxed, they are becoming more diverse also, as new applications are emerging. Although
the mentioned utility meter displays relaxed requirements in terms of latency and throughput, other
requirements may be far more stringent than what is expected from the smartphone use case. It is not
rare for utility meters located deep indoors, for example, in basements, to plac e high requirements on
the wireless coverage provided by the supporting communications systems. It is furthermore expected
that the number of M2M and IoT devices will, by far, eventually outnumber the smartphone population
and thereby effectively set new requirements on system capacity and network availability.
1.2.2 MASSIVE MACHINE-TYPE COMMUNICATIONS AND ULTRA RELIABLE AND
LOW LATENCY COMMUNICATIONS
From a service, applications, and requirements point of view, the IoT market is often said to be divided
into at least two categories: mMTC and URLLC. The Next Genera tion Mobile Networks Alliance is in
its 5G white paper [6] describing these two categories in terms of typical use cases and their associated
requirements. Smart Wearables and Sensor Networks are two industrial vertical features mentioned as
belonging to the mMTC market category. Smart wearables comprise not only, e.g., smart watches but
also sensors integrated in clothing. A main use case is sensing health-related metrics such as body
temperature and heartbeat. It is clear that if this tren d gains traction, the number of devices per person
will go far beyond what we see today, which will put new requirements on the capacity that must be
supported by cellular networks providing IoT services. It can furthermore be expected that in order for
clothing manufacturers to find wearables an appealing concept, the devices must be extremely
compact to support seamless integration in the clothing. The devices must also be of ultra-low cost to
attract clothing manufacturers as well as consumers.
Sensor networks is a family name for various utility meters such as gas, water, and electricity
meters. Potentially, every home is equipped with a multitude of sensors that will put high requirement
on the capacity of the communication system providing them with connectivity. As utility meters are
4 CHAPTER 1 THE CELLULAR INTERNET OF THINGS
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associated with stringent requirements on coverage, which is radio resource consuming, the task to
provide sufficient capacity for these becomes even more challenging. Meters may in addition entirely
rely on battery power, which will put high requirements on device energy efficiency to facilitate
operation for years on small and low-cost batteries.
URLLC can, on the othe r hand, be exemplified by high-end applications such as automated driving,
industrial automation, and eHealth. The news is filled with article s about traditional car manufacturers
and giants from the ICT industry competing in the development of autonomous vehicles. If such
applications are to be supported by cellular communication networks, the network needs to offer close
to perfect reliability combined with support for extreme latency requirements. It is also not far-fetched
to imagine remote steering as an attractive alternative to, or perhaps first step toward, fully autonomous
vehicles. In this case also requirements on support for high data rates to support high-resolution video
may come into the picture. Similar requirements can obviously also be mapped to the industrial
automation and eHealth verticals.
Figure 1.1 summarizes the just-made observations with a high level illustration of expected re-
quirements for the mMTC category and the URLLC category in terms of coverage, number of
supported connections, latency, throughput, mobility, device complexity, and device battery life.
For comparison also typical mobile broad band requirements discussed in Section 2.1 are depicted.
The center of the radar chart corresponds to relaxed requirements while the outskirts of the chart map
to stringent require ments.
1.2.3 INTRODUCING EC-GSM-IOT, NB-IOT, AND LTE-M
The three technologies EC-GSM-IoT, NB-IoT, and LTE-M, described in Chapters 3e8 in this book,
were to a large extent designed to serve use cases belonging to the category of mMTC. The work on
Latency
Throughput
Coverage
ComplexityBattery
Connections
Mobility
mMTC
URLLC
Mobile Broadband
FIGURE 1.1
mMTC, URLLC, and mobile broadband requirements.
1.2 NEW APPLICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 5
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LTE-M started in September 2011 with the 3GPP feasibility study named Study on Provision of Low-
Cost MTC UEs Based on LTE [7], referred to as the LTE-M study item in the following. The main
justification for this study item was to extend the LTE device capabilities in the low-end MTC domain,
provideanalternativetoGeneral Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced General Packet Radio
Service (EGPRS) devices, and facilitate a migration of GSM networks toward LTE. As the aim was to
replace GPRS/EGPRS as a bearer for MTC services, the study naturally used GPRS/EGPRS perfor-
mance as the benchmark when setting its objectives. It was, e.g., required that data rates, spectrum
efficiency, and power consumption should be at least as good as EGPRS. The main focus of the study
was, however, to provide a solution with device complexity and cost on par with GPRS. In September
2012, it was decided to add a new objective on study of the feasibility of a coverage improvement of
20 dB beyond normal LTE coverage. LTE devices have typically been considered far more expensive
than GPRS/EGPRS devices, mainly because of the improved capabilities provided by LTE. Therefore
for LTE to become competitive in the low-end mMTC market, a reduction in device cost and complexity
was considered crucial. The coverage enhancement was considered to be needed to facilitate deep indoor
coverage in locations where, for example, utility meters are expected to be located.
The work on EC-GSM-IoT and NB-IoT started one release later in the 3GPP feasibility study
named Cellular System Support for Ultra-low Complexity and Low Throughput Internet of Things [8],
referred to as the Cellular IoT study item in the following. Many aspects of this study can be recog-
nized from the LTE-M study item. The overall objective did, however, change from targeting a solution
comparable to GPRS/EGPRS to finding a solution competitive in the Low Power Wide Area segment,
which at the time to a large extent was defined by technologies for unlicen sed operation designed for
ultra-low complexity, extreme coverage range, and long device battery life as discussed in more detail
in Section 1.3.
As for the work on LTE-M, an important part of the Cellular IoT study was to meet an objective of
extending coverage with 20 dB. While the LTE-M study item used LTE coverage as reference, the
Cellular IoT study item defined the improvement in relation to GPRS coverage. The GPRS technology
is often seen as one of the most capable technologies in terms of coverage, and today it is still the main
technology providing cellular IoT connectivity. But just as for LTE, its capability was believed to be
insufficient to cater for deep indoor coverage. Part of the reasoning behind this objective was that
modern building materials besides their ability to provide excellent thermal insulation often are
characterized by high attenuation of radio waves. A further aspect that was taken into consideration is
that many IoT devices have a compact form factor where efficient antenna design is not prioritized.
This limits the achievable antenna gain and further increases the need for coverage and increased
Maximum Coupling Loss (MCL).
MCL is defined as the maximum loss in the conducted power level that a system can tolerate and
still be operable (defined by a minimum acceptable received power level). Hence, it can be calculated
as the difference between the conducted power levels measured at the transmitting and receiving
antenna ports, and it is an attractive metric to define coverage because of its simplicity. Because it is
defined using the antenna connector as the reference point, the directional gain of the antenna is not
considered when calculating MCL. Coverage can also be expressed by the Maximum Path Loss (MPL)
a technology can support. The path loss is defined by the loss in the signal path (e.g., distant-dependent
propagation loss, building penetration loss, etc.) of the radiated power. Hence, it can be calculated by
6 CHAPTER 1 THE CELLULAR INTERNET OF THINGS
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the difference in radiated power levels at the transmitting and receiving antennas. To determine the
MPL also the antenna gain at the transmitter and receiver need to be considered. The difference be-
tween MCL and MPL is illustrated in Figure 1.2. MCL has been chosen by 3GPP as the metric to
evaluate coverage enhancements. In the remainder of the book, the focus will therefore be on MCL
with a few exceptions when describing the capabilities of technologies operating in unlicensed
spectrum. The concept of MCL is described in Section 3.2.8.1 in detail.
In addition to coverage enhancement, it was required in the Cellular IoT study to show that device
battery life of at least 10 years were feasible to support, for example, utility meters with no access to a
mains power source. To minimize the maintenance cost of applications and equipment relying on
limited battery capacity, low energy consumption leading to long battery life is of high importance. A
network supporting a large-scale deployment of millions of devices requiring a fresh battery every year
would be difficult to maintain on commercial terms.
Furthermore, the candidat e technologies were require d to present a net work capaci ty sufficient to
support IoT type of services for central London under an assumption of 40 connected devices per
household, resulting in over 60,000 devices/km
2
. Last but not least, it was requested to achieve all this
with string ent requirements o n keeping the device complexity ultra-low to secure as low device cost
as possible. Table 1.1 summarizes these performance objectives required to be fulfilled by the
candidate technolog ies d eveloped withi n the Cellula r IoT stu dy item, inc luding EC-G SM-IoT and
NB-IoT.
Signal power level
Conducted TX power
TX antenna gain
Radiated power (EIRP)
Thermal noise power
RX noise figure
Required SNR
Receiver sensitivity
Transmitter (TX)
Receiver (RX)
RX antenna gain
Coupling Loss (CL)
Path Loss (PL)
FIGURE 1.2
Illustration of coupling loss and path loss.
1.2 NEW APPLICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 7
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1.3 LOW POWER WIDE AREA NETWORKS
1.3.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO TECHNOLOGIES FOR UNLICENSED OPERATION
As mentioned in Section 1.1, the 3GPP cellular technologies are not the only solutions competing for
IoT traffic. Also well-known technologies such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi can serve as bearers for MTC
traffic. A distinction between the group of cellular technologies and Bluetooth and Wi-Fi is that the
former is intended for operation in licensed spectrum while the latter two belong to the group of
systems operating in unlicensed spectrum, in so-called license exempt frequency bands.
Licensed spect rum corresponds to a part of the public frequency space that has been licensed by
national or regional authorities to a private company, typically a mobile network operator, under the
condition of providing a certain service to the public such as cel lular connectivity. At its best, a
licensed frequency band is globally available, which is of considerable importance for technologies
aiming for worldwide presence. The huge success of GSM is, for example, to a significant extent built
around the availability of the GSM 900 MHz band in large parts of the world. Licensed spectrum is,
however, commonly associated with high costs, and the media frequently give reports of spectrum
auctions bringing in significant incomes to national authorities all across the world.
Unlicensed spectrum, on the other hand, corresponds to portion s of the public frequency space that
can be said to remain public and therefore free of licensing costs. Equipment manufacturers using this
public spectrum must, however, meet a set of national or regional technical regulations for
Table 1.1 Overview of the performance objectives in the CIoT study item [8]
Objective Description Requirement
Coverage The MCL of the system was required to surpass GPRS
coverage by 20 dB. The GPRS coverage reference was
estimated to be equal to 144 dB.
164 dB
Throughput A coverage requirement becomes meaningful only when
associated with a throughput target. It was therefore required
that the candidate technologies should support a data rate of at
least 160 bps at the coverage limit.
160 bps
Latency mMTC is, in general, expected to provide delay tolerant
services. But to guarantee high-alert reporting, a latency
requirement of 10 s was set for high-priority reports.
10 s
Capacity Capacity supporting 40 connected devices per household in
downtown London with roughly 1500 households/km
2
was
required.
60,000 devices/km
2
Power efficiency To secure operation regardless of the access to a mains power
source, and with minimal requirements on battery capacity, it
was expected that a 5-watt-hour (Wh) battery would last for at
least 10 years in the most extreme coverage situations.
10 years/5 Wh
Complexity An ultra-low device complexity was required to support mass
production and deployment of devices of ultra-low cost.
Ultra-low device
complexity
8 CHAPTER 1 THE CELLULAR INTERNET OF THINGS
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