批判性思维指南：问对问题

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"Asking the Right Questions.pdf" 是一本关于批判性思维的指南，由M. Neil Browne和Stuart M. Keeley合著，适用于提高分析问题和理性决策的能力。在学习和生活中，提出正确的问题是发展批判性思维的关键。本书第八版提供了深入的洞察力和实践方法，帮助读者理解如何提出具有深度和洞察力的问题，从而进行更有效的思考。批判性思维是指对信息进行系统性、有目的和自我调整的分析，以做出明智的判断和决策。它不仅仅是质疑，而是涉及到理解和评估信息，识别偏见、逻辑错误和假设。书中的内容可能包括以下几个方面： 1. **定义和理解批判性思维**：首先，作者可能会解释批判性思维的概念，指出它是如何区别于常规思维，并讨论其在个人和专业生活中的价值。 2. **提问技巧**：书中会介绍如何构建和提出开放式问题，这些问题是探索复杂问题、挑战假设和揭示隐藏信息的有效工具。 3. **分析信息**：批判性思维涉及对信息来源的评估，包括识别可信度、可靠性和相关性。作者可能会教授如何批判性地分析和解读数据、事实和观点。 4. **逻辑推理**：书中可能会探讨逻辑谬误，如诉诸情感、偷换概念或非黑即白的思维，帮助读者识别并避免这些常见的推理陷阱。 5. **解决问题和做决策**：通过批判性思维，可以更好地解决问题和做决策。作者可能提供策略和步骤，教导读者如何系统化地处理问题并制定解决方案。 6. **自我反思**：批判性思维也涉及对自己的思考过程进行反思，以改进思考习惯和提高思维质量。 7. **实践应用**：书中可能会包含实际案例研究和练习，帮助读者将理论应用于实际情境，提高批判性思维的运用能力。 8. **道德和伦理考量**：批判性思维不仅仅涉及理性分析，还包括道德和伦理的考量，可能涉及如何在复杂的情境中平衡不同价值观和利益。 9. **批判性阅读**：学会批判性阅读是提升整体思维能力的重要一环，书中的指导可能包括如何深入理解文本、提出疑问以及评价作者的论点。 10. **指数与索引**：书末通常会有详细的索引，方便读者查找特定主题或概念，以便进一步研究和复习。《Asking the Right Questions》是一本旨在培养批判性思维能力的实用指南，通过学习，读者将能够更有效地评估信息，做出明智的决定，并在学术和职业生涯中取得成功。

Chapter 1

opinions to respond? The book you are about to read contains the best answer

we know. You need to build

skills

and attitudes

that

will enable you to decide

for

yourself

which opinions to make your own.

a thoughtful person you must make a choice about how you will react

to what you see and hear. One alternative is to just accept whatever you

encounter; doing so automatically results in your making someone

else's

opin-

ion your own.

more active alternative

consists

asking

questions in an effort

to reach a personal decision about the

worth

of what you have experienced.

This book

written

for those who prefer the second alternative.

Critical

Thinking

to the

Rescue

Listening

and reading

critically—that

is,

reacting

with

systematic evaluation to

what you have heard and

read—requires

a set of

skills

and attitudes. These

skills

and attitudes are built around a

series

of related critical questions. While

we will learn

them

one by one, our

goal

is to be able to use

them

together to

identify the best decision

available.

We could have expressed

them

as a list of

things

you should do, but a

sys-

tem of questions is more consistent

with

the spirit of curiosity, wonder, and

intellectual adventure essential to critical thinking. Thinking carefully

always

unfinished project, a story looking for an ending

that

will

never

arrive.

Criti-

cal

questions provide a stimulus and direction for critical thinking; they move us

forward toward a continual, ongoing search for

better

opinions, decisions, or

judgments.

Consequently,

critical

thinking,

as we will use the

term,

refers to the

following:

awareness of a set of interrelated critical questions;

ability to ask and answer critical questions at appropriate times; and the

desire to actively use the critical questions.

The

goal

of this book is to encourage you in all

three

of these dimensions.

Questions require the person being asked the question to act in

response.

our questions, we are

saying

to the person: I am curious;

want to

know more; help me. This request shows respect for the other person. The

questions exist to inform and provide direction for all who hear

them.

that

respect, critical thinking

begins

with

the desire to improve what

think. The

point of your questions is

that

you need help to have a deeper understanding

or appreciation

what is being

said.

The

Benefit of

Asking

the Right Questions 3

The critical questions will be shared

with

you one question at a time. As

package, they will be useful whenever you choose to react to

what

you are

hearing

or reading. They are

also

useful in improving your own writing and

speaking

because they

will

assist

you when you:

react critically to an

essay

or to evidence presented in a

textbook,

periodical, or on a Web site;

judge the quality of a lecture or speech;

form an argument;

write

essay

based on a reading

assignment;

participate in

class.

Attention:

Critical

thinking

consists

of an

awareness

set of

interre-

lated

critical questions, plus the

ability

and willingness to ask and answer

them

appropriate

times.

a citizen and consumer, you should find

them

especially

helpful in shap-

ing

your voting behavior and your purchasing

decisions,

well as in improving

your

self-confidence

increasing

your

sense

intellectual independence.

The

Sponge

and

Panning

for

Gold:

Alternative

Thinking

Styles

One approach to thinking is similar to the way in which a sponge reacts to

water:

absorbing.

This commonly used approach has some clear

advantages.

First,

the more information you absorb

about

the world, the more capa-

ble you are of understanding its complexities. Knowledge you have acquired

provides a foundation for more complicated thinking later.

second

advantage

of the sponge approach is

that

relatively

passive.

Rather than requiring strenuous mental effort, it tends to be rather quick and

easy,

especially

when the material is presented in a clear and interesting fash-

ion.

The primary mental effort

involves

concentration and memory.

While

absorbing

information provides a productive start toward becoming

thoughtful person, the sponge approach has a serious

disadvantage:

It pro-

vides

method

for deciding which information and opinions to believe and

which to reject.

reader relied on the sponge approach all the time, he would

believe

whatever he read

last.

The idea

being

the mental

puppet

whomever

one happens to encounter is horrible

imagery

for a person and a community.

Decisions

become accidents of

association,

instead of

reflective

judgments.

Chapter 1

We think you would rather choose for

yourself

what

to absorb and

what

ignore.

To make this choice, you must read

with

a special

attitude—a

question-

asking

attitude.

Such a thinking style requires active participation. The writer is

trying to speak to you, and you should try to talk back to him, even though he

not present.

call

this interactive approach the panning-for-gold style of thinking.

The process of panning for gold provides a model for active readers and

listeners

as they try to determine the

worth

what

they read and hear. The

task

challenging

and sometimes tedious, but the reward can be tremendous.

To distinguish the gold from the gravel in a conversation requires you to ask

frequent questions and to reflect on the answers.

The sponge approach emphasizes knowledge acquisition; the panning-

for-gold

approach stresses active interaction

with

knowledge as it is being

acquired. Thus, the two approaches complement each other. To pan for

intellectual

gold,

there

must be something in your pan to evaluate. In addition,

to evaluate arguments, we must

possess

knowledge, dependable opinions.

Let us examine more closely how the two approaches lead to different

behavior.

What

does the individual who takes the sponge approach do when

he reads material? He reads sentences carefully, trying to remember as much

he can. He may underline or highlight key words and sentences. He may

take notes summarizing the major topics and major points. He checks his

underlining or notes to be sure

that

he is not forgetting anything important.

His mission is to find and understand

what

the author has to

say.

He memo-

rizes

the reasoning, but doesn't evaluate it.

What

does the reader who takes the panning-for-gold approach do?

the person using the sponge approach, he approaches his reading

with

the hope

that

he will acquire new knowledge. There the similarity ends. The

panning-for-gold

approach requires

that

the reader

asks

himself

number of

questions designed to uncover the best

available

decisions or beliefs.

Exhibit

1.1

MENTAL

CHECK:

Panning

for

Gold?

Did

ask

"why"

someone

wants me to believe something?

Did

take notes

thought

about

potential

problems

with

what

was

being

said?

Did

evaluate

what

was

being

said?

Did

form

my own conclusion about the topic?

The Benefit of

Asking

the Right Questions 5

The reader who uses the

panning-for-gold

approach frequently ques-

tions why the author makes various claims. He writes notes to himself in the

margins

indicating problems

with

the reasoning. He continually interacts

with

the material. His

intent

is to critically evaluate the material and formulate

personal conclusions based on the evaluation.

Example

of the

Panning-for-Gold

Approach

A major enduring issue in American society concerns what kind of gun con-

trol laws we need. Let's look at one position on this issue. Try to decide

whether the argument is convincing.

Arguments for banning guns are mostly myths, and what we need now is not

more laws, but more law enforcement. One myth is

that

most murderers are

ordinary,

law-abiding citizens who kill a relative or acquaintance in a moment of

anger

only because a gun is

available.

In fact, every study of homicide shows the

overwhelming majority of murderers are career criminals, people

with

lifelong

histories

violence.

The typical murderer has a

prior

criminal history

averaging

at least six

years,

with

four major felony arrests.

Another myth is

that

gun owners are ignorant rednecks given to

senseless

vio-

lence.

However, studies consistently show

that,

on the average, gun owners are

better

educated and have more

prestigious

jobs than non-owners. To judge by

their applications for permits to carry guns at all times, the following are (or

were) gun owners: Eleanor Roosevelt, Joan Rivers, Donald

Trump,

and David

Rockefeller.

A further myth is

that

guns are not useful for self-defense. On the contrary!

Every

study has shown

that

handguns are used more often in repelling crimes

than in committing

them.

While handguns are used in about 581,000 crimes

yearly,

they are used to repel about 645,000 crimes.

Even

gun

laws

do potentially reduce gun-related crime, the present

laws

are all

that

are needed if they are enforced.

What

good would stronger laws do when

the courts have demonstrated

that

they

will

not enforce them?

you apply the sponge approach to the

passage,

you probably will try to

remember the reasons

that

we don't need further controls on guns. If

so,

you

will have absorbed some knowledge. However, how convinced should you be

the above reasons? You can't evaluate

them

until you have applied the pan-

ning-for-gold

approach to the

passage—that

is,

until you have asked the right

questions.

Chapter

asking the right questions, you would discover a

number

of possible

weaknesses in the communicator's arguments. For instance, you might be

concerned

about

all of the following:

What

does the author mean by "overwhelming majority" or by "typical

murderer"? Is the minority still a substantial

number

of murderers who

kill

relatives in a

moment

anger?

What

does "gun owners" mean? Are they the ones who buy the kind of

guns

that

gun control advocates are trying to ban?

How adequate were the cited research studies?

Were

the samples

suffi-

ciently

large,

random, and diverse?

Has the author lied

with

statistics by impressing us

with

large,

rather

precise numbers, like 581,000 and 645,000?

What

is the

basis

for these

numbers? Can we rely on them?

What

possible benefits of gun control are not mentioned? Have impor-

tant

studies

that

disagree

with

the author's position been omitted?

6. Is it legitimate to assume

that

because some famous people own

guns,

then

owning guns is desirable? Do these people have special expertise

concerning the pros and cons of gun ownership?

How many people are killed each year by handguns who would not have

been killed were such guns not

available?

8. Why did the person writing the

essay

fail

to explain how we could

encourage

better

enforcement

existing gun control

laws

to demonstrate

his

sensitivity to the harm

that

guns sometimes facilitate?

you would enjoy asking these kinds of questions, this book is especially

for you. Its primary purpose is to help you know when and how to ask ques-

tions

that

will enable you to decide

what

to believe.

The most

important

characteristic of the

panning-for-gold

approach is

interactive

involvement—a

dialogue

between

the

writer

and the reader, or the

speaker and the listener.

Clearly,

there

are times when the sponge approach is appropriate.

Most of you have used it regularly and have acquired some level of success

with

it. It is

much

less

likely

that

you are in the habit of employing the pan-

ning-for-gold

approach—in

part,

simply because you have not had the

appropriate training and practice. This book will not only help you ask the

right questions, but will

also

provide frequent opportunities for practicing

their use.

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