算法导论第三版：英文版编程经典

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《算法导论》第三版是一本经典的计算机科学教材，由Thomas H. Cormen、Charles E. Leiserson、Ronald L. Rivest和Clifford Stein四位知名学者共同编著，由麻省理工学院出版社出版。本书专为学习算法设计与分析的学生和专业人士精心打造，无论你是希望深入理解数据结构和算法原理，还是想要提升在C++、Java等编程语言中的算法实现能力，它都是不可或缺的参考资料。本书的核心内容围绕着算法设计的基本原理，包括搜索、排序、图算法、动态规划、递归、分治法等经典算法。作者们以严谨的学术态度和清晰的逻辑阐述了这些算法的理论基础、复杂度分析、实现策略以及应用场景，旨在帮助读者掌握算法设计的思想和方法。每一种算法都配有详细的伪代码和实例，使读者能够直观地理解和掌握。作为第三版，本书在前一版的基础上进行了修订和完善，考虑到了近年来计算机科学领域的新发展和技术进步，确保了内容的时效性和实用性。书中还包含了丰富的练习题和习题解答，便于读者通过实践来巩固所学知识。此外，为了适应不同水平的学习者，书中提供了从基础概念到高级主题的逐步深入讲解，使得无论是初学者还是有经验的工程师都能从中受益。《算法导论》第三版的英文版对于那些需要接触和研究国际标准算法的读者来说尤为有价值，它的英文表述精准且深入，是专业研究者和研究生的首选参考书。同时，其版权保护严格，未经许可不得任何形式的复制或机械复制，体现了作者和出版社对知识传播的尊重。《算法导论》第三版是一部权威且全面的算法学习指南，它不仅是算法设计领域的基石，也是提升编程技能和解决复杂问题的重要工具。无论是自学、教学还是职业发展，这本书都值得每一位IT专业人士珍藏和研读。

Preface xv

What are the prerequisites for reading this book?



You should have some programming experience. In particular, you should un-

derstand recursive procedures and simple data structures such as arrays and

linked lists.



You should have some facility with mathematical proofs, and especially proofs

by mathematical induction. A few portions of the book rely on some knowledge

of elementary calculus. Beyond that, Parts I and VIII of this book teach you all

the mathematical techniques you will need.

We have heard, loud and clear, the call to supply solutions to problems and

exercises. Our Web site, http://mitpress.mit.edu/algorithms/, links to solutions for

a few of the problems and exercises. Feel free to check your solutions against ours.

We ask, however, that you do not send your solutions to us.

To the professional

The wide range of topics in this book makes it an excellent handbook on algo-

rithms. Because each chapter is relatively self-contained, you can focus in on the

topics that most interest you.

Most of the algorithms we discuss have great practical utility. We therefore

address implementation concerns and other engineering issues. We often provide

practical alternatives to the few algorithms that are primarily of theoretical interest.

If you wish to implement any of the algorithms, you should ﬁnd the transla-

tion of our pseudocode into your favorite programming language to be a fairly

straightforward task. We have designed the pseudocode to present each algorithm

clearly and succinctly. Consequently, we do not address error-handling and other

software-engineering issues that require speciﬁc assumptions about your program-

ming environment. We attempt to present each algorithm simply and directly with-

out allowing the idiosyncrasies of a particular programming language to obscure

its essence.

We understand that if you are using this book outside of a course, then you

might be unable to check your solutions to problems and exercises against solutions

provided by an instructor. Our Web site, http://mitpress.mit.edu/algorithms/, links

to solutions for some of the problems and exercises so that you can check your

work. Please do not send your solutions to us.

To our colleagues

We have supplied an extensive bibliography and pointers to the current literature.

Each chapter ends with a set of chapter notes that give historical details and ref-

erences. The chapter notes do not provide a complete reference to the whole ﬁeld

xvi Preface

of algorithms, however. Though it may be hard to believe for a book of this size,

space constraints prevented us from including many interesting algorithms.

Despite myriad requests from students for solutions to problems and exercises,

we have chosen as a matter of policy not to supply references for problems and

exercises, to remove the temptation for students to look up a solution rather than to

ﬁnd it themselves.

Changes f or the third edition

What has changed between the second and third editions of this book? The mag-

nitude of the changes is on a par with the changes between the ﬁrst and second

editions. As we said about the second-edition changes, depending on how you

look at it, the book changed either not much or quite a bit.

A quick look at the table of contents shows that most of the second-edition chap-

ters and sections appear in the third edition. We removed two chapters and one

section, but we have added three new chapters and two new sections apart from

these new chapters.

We kept the hybrid organization from the ﬁrst two editions. Rather than organiz-

ing chapters by only problem domains or according only to techniques, this book

has elements of both. It contains technique-based chapters on divide-and-conquer,

dynamic programming, greedy algorithms, amortized analysis, NP-Completeness,

and approximation algorithms. But it also has entire parts on sorting, on data

structures for dynamic sets, and on algorithms for graph problems. We ﬁnd that

although you need to know how to apply techniques for designing and analyzing al-

gorithms, problems seldom announce to you which techniques are most amenable

to solving them.

Here is a summary of the most signiﬁcant changes for the third edition:



We added new chapters on van Emde Boas trees and multithreaded algorithms,

and we have broken out material on matrix basics into its own appendix chapter.



We revised the chapter on recurrences to more broadly cover the divide-and-

conquer technique, and its ﬁrst two sections apply divide-and-conquer to solve

two problems. The second section of this chapter presents Strassen’s algorithm

for matrix multiplication, which we have moved from the chapter on matrix

operations.



We removed two chapters that were rarely taught: binomial heaps and sorting

networks. One key idea in the sorting networks chapter, the 0-1 principle, ap-

pears in this edition within Problem 8-7 as the 0-1 sorting lemma for compare-

exchange algorithms. The treatment of Fibonacci heaps no longer relies on

binomial heaps as a precursor.

Preface xvii



We revised our treatment of dynamic programming and greedy algorithms. Dy-

namic programming now leads off with a more interesting problem, rod cutting,

than the assembly-line scheduling problem from the second edition. Further-

more, we emphasize memoization a bit more than we did in the second edition,

and we introduce the notion of the subproblem graph as a way to understand

the running time of a dynamic-programming algorithm. In our opening exam-

ple of greedy algorithms, the activity-selection problem, we get to the greedy

algorithm more directly than we did in the second edition.



The way we delete a node from binary search trees (which includes red-black

trees) now guarantees that the node requested for deletion is the node that is

actually deleted. In the ﬁrst two editions, in certain cases, some other node

would be deleted, with its contents moving into the node passed to the deletion

procedure. With our new way to delete nodes, if other components of a program

maintain pointers to nodes in the tree, they will not mistakenly end up with stale

pointers to nodes that have been deleted.



The material on ﬂow networks now bases ﬂows entirely on edges. This ap-

proach is more intuitive than the net ﬂow used in the ﬁrst two editions.



With the material on matrix basics and Strassen’s algorithm moved to other

chapters, the chapter on matrix operations is smaller than in the second edition.



We have modiﬁed our treatment of the Knuth-Morris-Pratt string-matching al-

gorithm.



We corrected several errors. Most of these errors were posted on our Web site

of second-edition errata, but a few were not.



Based on many requests, we changed the syntax (as it were) of our pseudocode.

We now use “ D” to indicate assignment and “

” to test for equality, just as C,

C++, Java, and Python do. Likewise, we have eliminated the keywords do and

then and adopted “//” as our comment-to-end-of-line symbol. We also now use

dot-notation to indicate object attributes. Our pseudocode remains procedural,

rather than object-oriented. In other words, rather than running methods on

objects, we simply call procedures, passing objects as parameters.



We added 100 new exercises and 28 new problems. We also updated many

bibliography entries and added several new ones.



Finally, we went through the entire book and rewrote sentences, paragraphs,

and sections to make the writing clearer and more active.

xviii Preface

Web site

You can use our Web site, http://mitpress.mit.edu/algorithms/, to obtain supple-

mentary information and to communicate with us. The Web site links to a list of

known errors, solutions to selected exercises and problems, and (of course) a list

explaining the corny professor jokes, as well as other content that we might add.

The Web site also tells you how to report errors or make suggestions.

How we produced this book

Like the second edition, the third edition was produced in L

. We used the

Times font with mathematics typeset using the MathTime Pro 2 fonts. We thank

Michael Spivak from Publish or Perish, Inc., Lance Carnes from Personal TeX,

Inc., and Tim Tregubov from Dartmouth College for technical support. As in the

previous two editions, we compiled the index using Windex, a C program that we

wrote, and the bibliography was produced with B

IBT

X. The PDF ﬁles for this

book were created on a MacBook running OS 10.5.

We drew the illustrations for the third edition using MacDraw Pro, with some

of the mathematical expressions in illustrations laid in with the psfrag package

for L

. Unfortunately, MacDraw Pro is legacy software, having not been

marketed for over a decade now. Happily, we still have a couple of Macintoshes

that can run the Classic environment under OS 10.4, and hence they can run Mac-

Draw Pro—mostly. Even under the Classic environment, we ﬁnd MacDraw Pro to

be far easier to use than any other drawing software for the types of illustrations

that accompany computer-science text, and it produces beautiful output.

Who

knows how long our pre-Intel Macs will continue to run, so if anyone from Apple

is listening: Please create an OS X-compatible version of MacDraw Pro!

Acknowledgments for the third edition

We have been working with the MIT Press for over two decades now, and what a

terriﬁc relationship it has been! We thank Ellen Faran, Bob Prior, Ada Brunstein,

and Mary Reilly for their help and support.

We were geographically distributed while producing the third edition, working

in the Dartmouth College Department of Computer Science, the MIT Computer

We investigated several drawing programs that run under Mac OS X, but all had signiﬁcant short-

comings compared with MacDraw Pro. We brieﬂy attempted to produce the illustrations for this

book with a different, well known drawing program. We found that it took at least ﬁve times as long

to produce each illustration as it took with MacDraw Pro, and the resulting illustrations did not look

as good. Hence the decision to revert to MacDraw Pro running on older Macintoshes.

Preface xix

Science and Artiﬁcial Intelligence Laboratory, and the Columbia University De-

partment of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research. We thank our re-

spective universities and colleagues for providing such supportive and stimulating

environments.

Julie Sussman, P.P.A., once again bailed us out as the technical copyeditor. Time

and again, we were amazed at the errors that eluded us, but that Julie caught. She

also helped us improve our presentation in several places. If there is a Hall of Fame

for technical copyeditors, Julie is a sure-ﬁre, ﬁrst-ballot inductee. She is nothing

short of phenomenal. Thank you, thank you, thank you, Julie! Priya Natarajan also

found some errors that we were able to correct before this book went to press. Any

errors that remain (and undoubtedly, some do) are the responsibility of the authors

(and probably were inserted after Julie read the material).

The treatment for van Emde Boas trees derives from Erik Demaine’s notes,

which were in turn inﬂuenced by Michael Bender. We also incorporated ideas

from Javed Aslam, Bradley Kuszmaul, and Hui Zha into this edition.

The chapter on multithreading was based on notes originally written jointly with

Harald Prokop. The material was inﬂuenced by several others working on the Cilk

project at MIT, including Bradley Kuszmaul and Matteo Frigo. The design of the

multithreaded pseudocode took its inspiration from the MIT Cilk extensions to C

and by Cilk Arts’s Cilk++ extensions to C++.

We also thank the many readers of the ﬁrst and second editions who reported

errors or submitted suggestions for how to improve this book. We corrected all the

bona ﬁde errors that were reported, and we incorporated as many suggestions as

we could. We rejoice that the number of such contributors has grown so great that

we must regret that it has become impractical to list them all.

Finally, we thank our wives—Nicole Cormen, Wendy Leiserson, Gail Rivest,

and Rebecca Ivry—and our children—Ricky, Will, Debby, and Katie Leiserson;

Alex and Christopher Rivest; and Molly, Noah, and Benjamin Stein—for their love

and support while we prepared this book. The patience and encouragement of our

families made this project possible. We affectionately dedicate this book to them.

HOMAS H. CORMEN Lebanon, New Hampshire

CHARLES E. LEISERSON Cambridge, Massachusetts

RONALD L. RIVEST Cambridge, Massachusetts

CLIFFORD STEIN New York, New York

February 2009

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