现代声学科学与应用：第二版

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"The Science and Applications of Acoustics, 2nd edition" 是一本由 Daniel R. Raichel 编著的书籍，详细探讨了声学的科学原理及其在多个领域的广泛应用。这本书涵盖从超声波到次声波的广泛频率范围，反映了现代声学的发展，这些发展受到材料科学、医学、牙科、海洋学、导航、通信、石油和矿产勘探、工业过程、音乐和语音合成、动物生物声学以及噪声消除等多个领域的影响。书中的内容深入浅出地讲解了声学的基本概念，包括音乐和语音再现技术的进步、听力测量、心理声学、语音分析以及环境噪声控制等传统领域的创新。此外，书中还配有253幅插图，以直观地展示声学现象和应用。在医学领域，声学被用于超声成像，这是一种无创的诊断工具，可以观察人体内部结构，如胎儿发育或检查器官功能。在牙科，声学也用于检测牙齿的健康状况。海洋学中，声纳技术利用声波探测水下物体和测量海洋深度，对于海洋导航和研究至关重要。通信技术中的声学涉及声音信号的传输和接收，包括电话、无线电和互联网语音服务。石油和矿产勘探利用地震波声学来定位地下的储油层或矿床。工业过程中，声学监测可用于设备维护和故障预测，通过分析机器产生的声音来识别潜在问题。音乐和语音合成是声学的另一个重要应用，它允许创建虚拟乐器和人工智能生成的语音，极大地丰富了艺术表达和人机交互。动物生物声学则研究动物如何通过声音进行交流，这对于理解野生动物的行为和保护工作具有重要意义。噪声消除技术是现代声学的一大亮点，通过抵消噪声波来降低环境噪声，这在飞机、汽车和建筑隔音设计中都有所应用。同时，心理声学研究人类对声音的感知，这在音频工程和声环境设计中至关重要。这本书全面涵盖了声学的科学原理和实际应用，是了解和学习这一领域的宝贵资源。无论你是科研人员、工程师、音乐家还是对声学感兴趣的普通读者，都能从中获得丰富的知识和启示。

6 1. A Capsule History of Acoustics

conﬂict by embracing elements of both theories. Newton essentially squelched the

wave theory until its revival by Thomas Young (1773–1829) and Augustin Jean

Fresnel (1788–1817), both of whom, independently of each other, elucidated the

principle of interference. On his analysis of diffraction, Fresnel drew heavily on

Huygen’s principle in which successive positions of a wavefront are established

by the envelope of secondary wavelets.

Armed with the analytical tools afforded by the advent of calculus by Newton and

Leibniz, the French mathematical school treated problems of theoretical mechan-

ics. Among the major contributors were Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813), the

Bernoulli brothers James (1654–1705) and Johann (1667–1748), G. F. A. l

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Hˆopital

(Marquis de St. Mesme) (1661–1704), Gabriel Cramer (1704–1752), Leonhard

Euler (1707–1783), Jean Le Rond d’Alembert (1717–1783), and Daniel Bernoulli

(1700–1783). And the next generation provided a further ﬂowering of genius:

Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813), Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827), Adrian

Marie Legendre (1736–1833), Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), and

Sim´eon Denis Poisson (1781–1840). The nineteenth century was also dominated

by discoveries in electricity and magnetism by Michael Faraday (1791–1867),

James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894), and by

the theory of elasticity, principally developed by Clause L. M. Navier (1785–

1836), Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789–1857), Rudolf J. E. Clausius (1822–1888),

and George Gabriel Stokes (1890–1909).

These developments constituted the foundation for understanding the physical

and eventually the physiologcial aspects of acoustics. In the attempt to grasp the

nature of musical sound, Simon Ohm (1789–1854) advanced the hypothesis that

the ear perceived only a single, pure sinusoidal vibration and that each complex

sound is resolved by the ear into its fundamental frequency and its harmonics.

Hermann F. L. von Helmholtz (1821–1894) arguably deserves the credit for laying

the foundations of spectral analysis in his classic Lehre von den Tonempﬁndungen

(Sensation of Sound). The monumental two-volume Theory of Sound, released in

1877 and 1878 by the future Nobel laureate, Lord Rayleigh, laid down in a fairly

complete fashion the theoretical foundations of acoustics.

When the newly constructed Fogg Lecture Hall was opened in 1894 at Harvard

University, its acoustics was found to be so atrocious so as to render that facil-

ity almost useless. This prompted Harvard’s Board of Overseers to request the

physics department that something be done to rectify the situation. The task was

assigned to a young Harvard researcher, Wallace Clement Sabine (1868–1919),

and he discovered soon enough that excessive reverberations tend to mask the lec-

turer’s words. In a series of papers (1900–1915) evolving from his studies of the

lecture hall, he almost single-handedly elevated architectural acoustics to scientiﬁc

status. Sabine helped establish the Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories

at Geneva,

Illinois. Just prior to his scheduled assumption of his duties at Riverbank, Sabine

succumbed at the young age of 50 to cancer. His distant cousin, Paul Earls Sabine

Riverbank is possibly the ﬁrst research facility set up speciﬁcally for study and research in acoustics.

1. A Capsule History of Acoustics 7

(1879–1958), also a Harvard physicist, took on the task of running the laboratory.

The development of test procedures, methodology, and standardization in testing

the acoustical nature of products arose from the pioneering efforts of the younger

Sabine. A third member of the family, Paul Sabine’s son Hale Johnson Sabine

(1909–1981), began his career in architectural acoustics at the tender age of 10

by assisting his father at Riverbank, and his efforts centered on control of noise

in industry and institutions. Both father and son, Paul and Hale, served terms as

president of the Acoustical Society of America.

The genesis of ultrasonics occurred in the nineteenth century with James P.

Joule’s (1818–1889) discovery in 1847 of the magnetostrictive effect, the alter-

ation of the dimensions of a magnetic material under the inﬂuence of a magnetic

ﬁeld, and in 1880 with the ﬁnding by the brothers Paul-Jacques (1855–1941) and

Pierre (1859–1906) Curie that electric charges result on the surfaces of certain

crystals subjected to pressure or tension. The Curies’ discovery of the piezoelec-

tric electric effect provided the means of detecting ultrasonic signals. The inverse

effect, whereby a voltage impressed across two surfaces of a crystals give rise

to stresses in the materials, now constitutes the principal method of generating

ultrasonic energy.

The study of underwater sound stemming from the necessity for ships to avoid

dangerous obstacles in water supplied the impetus for development of ultrasonic

applications. Until the early part of the twentieth century ships were warned of

hazardous conditions by bells suspended from lightships. Specially trained crew

members listened for these bells by pressing microphones or stethoscopes against

the hulls. In the effort to counteract the German submarine threat during World

War I, Robert Williams Wood (1868–1955) and Gerrard in England and Paul

Langevin (1872–1946) in France were assigned the task of developing counter

surveillance methods.

The youthful Russian electrical engineer, Constantin Chilowsky (1880–1958),

collaborated with Langevin in experiments with an electrostatic (condenser)

projector and a carbon-button microphone placed at the focus of a concave mirror.

In spite of troubles encountered with leakages and breakdowns due to the high

voltages necessary for the operation of the projectors, Langevin and Chilowsky

were able by 1916 to obtain echoes from the ocean bottom and from a sheet

of armor plate at a distance of 200 m. A year later Langevin came up with the

concept of using a piezoelectric receiver and employed one of the newly developed

vacuum-tube ampliﬁers—the earliest application of electronics to underwater

sound equipment—and Wood constructed the ﬁrst directional hydrophone geared

to locate hostile submarines. The ﬁrst devices to generate directional beams of

acoustic energy also constitute the ﬁrst use of ultrasonics. Reginald A. Fessenden

(1866–1932), a Canadian engineer, working independently, developed a moving

coil transducer operating at frequencies in the range of 500–1000 Hz to generate

underwater signals. In the course of their underwater sound investigations, Wood

and his co-worker Alfred L. Loomis (1887–1975), who also was a trained lawyer,

and Langevin observed that small water creatures could be stunned, maimed, or

even destroyed by the effects of intense ultrasonic ﬁelds.

8 1. A Capsule History of Acoustics

World War I ended before underwater echo-ranging could be fully deployed to

meet the German U-boat threat. The years of peace following World War I wit-

nessed a slow but nevertheless steady advance in applying underwater sound to

depth-sounding by ships. Improvements in electronic ampliﬁcation and process-

ing, magnetostrictive projectors, piezoelectric transducers provided reﬁnements in

echo-ranging. The advent of World War II heightened research activity on both

sides of the Atlantic, and most of the present concepts and applications of under-

water acoustics traced their origins to this period. The concept of target strength,

noise output of various ships at different speeds and frequencies, reverberation in

the sea, and evaluation of underwater sound through spectrum analysis were quan-

titatively established. It was during this period that underwater acoustics became

a mature branch of science and engineering, backed by vast literature and history

of achievement.

The invention of the triode vacuum tube and the advent of the telephone and radio

broadcasting served to intensify interest in the ﬁeld of acoustics. The development

of vacuum tube ampliﬁers and signal generators rendered feasible the design and

construction of sensitive and reliable measurement instruments. The evolution of

the modern telephone system in the United States was facilitated by the progress

of communication acoustics, mainly through the remarkable efforts of the Bell

Telephone Laboratories.

The historic invention of the transistor (1949) at the Bell Laboratories in Murray

Hill, New Jersey, gave rise to a whole slew of new devices in the ﬁeld of electronics,

including solid state audio and video equipment, computers, spectrum analyzers,

electric power conditioners, and other gear too numerous to mention here.

Experiments and development of theory in architectural acoustics were con-

ducted during the 1930s and the 1940s at a number of major research centers,

notably Harvard, MIT, and UCLA. Vern O. Knudsen (1893–1974), eventually the

chancellor of UCLA, carried on Sabine’s work by conducting major research on

sound absorption and transmission. The most notable of his younger associates

was Cyril M. Harris (b. 1917), who was to become the principal consultant on

the acoustics of the Metropolitan Opera House in New York, the John F. Kennedy

Center in the District of Columbia, the Powell Symphony Hall in St. Louis, and a

number of other notable ediﬁces.

Sound decay, in terms of reverberation times, was discovered to be a decisive

factor in gauging the suitability of enclosed areas for use as listening chambers.

The impedance method of rating acoustical materials was established to predict the

radiative patterns of sonic output, and prediction of sound attenuation in ducts was

established on a scientiﬁc footing. The architectural acoustician now has a wide

array of acoustical materials to choose from and to tailor the walls segmentwise

in order to effect the proper acoustic environment.

Acoustics also engendered the science of psychoacoustics. Harvey Fletcher

(1884–1990) led the Bell Telephone Laboratories in describing and quantifying

the concepts of loudness and masking, and there, many of the determinants of

speech communication were also established (1920–1940). Fletcher, now regarded

as “the father of psychoacoustics,” worked with the physicist Robert Millikan at

1. A Capsule History of Acoustics 9

the University of Chicago, on the determination of the electron charge. Fletcher

indeed performed much of the famed oil drop experiment, to the extent that many

physicists feel that the student should have shared the 1923 Nobel Prize in physics

with his professor who received the award for this effort. At Bell Labs, Fletcher also

developed the ﬁrst electronic hearing aid and invented stereophonic reproduction.

Sound reproduction also constituted the domain of Harry F. Olson (1902–1982),

who directed the Acoustical Laboratory at RCA and developed modern versions

of loudspeakers. Warren P. Mason’s (1900–1986) major work in physical acous-

tics essentially laid down the modern foundations of ultrasonics, and Georg von

Bek´esy (1849–1972) earned the Nobel Prize for his research on the mechanics of

human hearing. Acoustics penetrated the ﬁelds of medicine and chemistry through

the medium of ultrasonics: ultrasonic diathermy became established and certain

chemical reactions were found to become accelerated under acoustic conditions.

The outbreak of World War II served to greatly intensify acoustics research at

major laboratories in Western Europe and in the United States, particularly in view

of the demand for sonar detection of stealthily moving submarines and for reliable

speech communication in cacophonous environments such as propeller aircraft

and armored vehicles. This research not only has reached great proportions, it has

continued unabated to this day, at major universities and government institutions,

among them being the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Naval Surface Warfare

Center, MIT, Purdue University, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Pennsylvania

State University.

Prominent among the researchers were Richard Henry Bolt (1911–2002) and

Leo L. Beranek (b. 1914) who teamed up after World War II to found a ma-

jor research corporation, Bolt, Beranek & Newman (now BBN Technologies);

Phillip M. Morse of MIT [who authored and co-authored with Karl Uno Ingard

(b. 1921) major texts in physical acoustics]; R. Bruce Lindsay (1900–1985) of

Brown University; and Robert T. Beyer, who contributed to nonlinear acoustics,

also at Brown. In 1947 Eugen Skudrzyk (1913–1990) began research in nearly all

areas of acoustics at the Technical University of Vienna and went on to Pennsylva-

nia State University in the United States, he wrote possibly the best comprehensive

text on physical acoustics since Lord Rayleigh’s Theory of Sound.

Karl D. Kryter (b. 1914) of California dealt with the physiological effects of noise

on humans, and Carleen Hutchins (b. 1911) is still providing great insight into the

design and construction of musical string instruments, in her dual role as investigat-

ing acoustician and craftsperson seeking to emulate the old Cremona masters in her

hometown of Montclair, New Jersey. Laser intereferometry was applied by Karl H.

Steson (b. 1937) and by Lothar Cremer (1905–1990) to visualize vibrations of the

violin body. Sir James Lighthill (1924–1998), who held the Lucasian chair (once

occupied by Newton) in mathematics at Cambridge University, laid down the foun-

dations of modern aeroacoustics, building on the foundations of Lord Rayleigh’s

earlier research. UCLA’s Isadore Rudnick (1917–1997) performed major experi-

ments in superﬂuid hydrodynamics, involving sound propagation in helium at cryo-

geneic temperatures and also conducted studies of acoustically induced streaming

modes of vibrations of elastic bodies and attenuation of sound in seawater. At

10 1. A Capsule History of Acoustics

the Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington, Lawrence A.

Crum (b. 1941) directs major research on sonoﬂuorescence as well as the de-

velopment of ultrasound diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices. Kenneth S.

Suslick (b. 1952) and his co-workers at the University of Illinois are making major

contributions in the ﬁeld of sonochemistry. Whitlow W. L. Au at the University of

Hawaii is conducting studies on the characteristics of cetacean acoustics, including

the target discrimination capabilities of dolphins and whales.

With acoustic research continuing apace, the number of great acoustcians living

surely exceeds that of deceased ones.

It can truly now be said that the U.S. Navy has done more (and is still doing

more) than any other institution to further acoustics research at its widespread facil-

ities, including Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and the Naval Surface Warfare

Center (NSWC). Much magniﬁcent work was done under the cloak of security

classiﬁcation during the days of the Cold War, with the consequence that many

deserving researchers do not bask in the glory that have been publicly accorded

professional societies’ medal honorees and Nobel Prize laureates.

Robert J. Bobber (b. 1918) of NRL facility in Orlando paved the way in underwa-

ter electroacoustics measurements. Acoustics radiation constituted the domain of

Sam Hanish, late of the NRL in the District of Columbia. At NSWC’s David Taylor

Basin in Bethesda, Maryland, Murray Strausberg (b. 1917) continues to make ma-

jor contributions in the ﬁeld of propeller noise, which entails the study of cavitation

and hydroacoustics as he did for the past three decades; David Feit (b. 1937) ranks

as a leading expert in the ﬁeld of structural acoustics; and William K. Blake reigned

preeminent in the category of aero-hydroacoustics (Blake, 1964). Herman Medwin

(b. 1920) of the Navy Postgraduate School at Monterey, California, conducted ma-

jor research in acoustical oceanography. As a senior research physicist at the U.S.

Naval Surface Weapons Center, headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland, Robert

Joseph Urick (1916–1996) elucidated the characteristics of underwater acoustical

phenomena, including sonar effects. He later taught the principles of underwater

sound at the Catholic University of America in Washington, DC.

Acoustics is no longer the esoteric domain of interest to a few specialists in

the telephone and broadcasting industries, the military, and university research

centers. Legislation and subsequent action have been demanded internationally to

provide quiet housing, safe and comfortable work environments in the factory and

the ofﬁce, quieter airports and streets, and protection in general from excessive

exposure to noisy appliances and equipment.

The wiser architects are increasingly using acoustical engineers to ensure en-

vironmental harmony with the esthetic aspects of their designs. Acoustic instru-

mentation is being used in industry to facilitate manufacturing processes and to

ensure quality control. Acoustics has even invaded the living room through the

medium of high ﬁdelity reproduction, giving rise to a spate of new equipment such

as Dolby processors, digital processors, compact disc (and more lately DVD) play-

ers, multi-speaker “Surround-Sound” environment conditioners, music synthesizer

circuit boards for personal computers. The escalating applications of ultrasound

provide new diagnostic and therapeutic tools in the medical ﬁeld, more reliable

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