LinuxSystemAdministratorGuideVersion0.9

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Linux System Administrator Guide Version0.9 Table of Contents About This Book.................................................................................................................................................1 1. Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................1 1.1. Joanna's acknowledgments.........................................................................................................1 1.2. Stephen's acknowledgments.......................................................................................................1 1.3. Alex's Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................2 2. Revision History..................................................................................................................................2 3. Source and pre-formatted versions available......................................................................................2 4. Typographical Conventions.................................................................................................................3 Chapter 1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................4 1.1. Linux or GNU/Linux, that is the question........................................................................................5 1.2. Trademarks.......................................................................................................................................5 Chapter 2. Overview of a Linux System...........................................................................................................7 2.1. Various parts of an operating system................................................................................................7 2.2. Important parts of the kernel.............................................................................................................7 2.3. Major services in a UNIX system.....................................................................................................8 2.3.1. init............................................................................................................................................9 2.3.2. Logins from terminals.............................................................................................................9 2.3.3. Syslog......................................................................................................................................9 2.3.4. Periodic command execution: cron and at............................................................................10 2.3.5. Graphical user interface.........................................................................................................10 2.3.6. Networking............................................................................................................................10 2.3.7. Network logins......................................................................................................................11 2.3.8. Network file systems.............................................................................................................11 2.3.9. Mail.......................................................................................................................................11 2.3.10. Printing................................................................................................................................12 2.3.11. The filesystem layout..........................................................................................................12 Chapter 3. Overview of the Directory Tree....................................................................................................13 3.1. Background.....................................................................................................................................13 3.2. The root filesystem.........................................................................................................................14 3.3. The/etc directory............................................................................................................................15 3.4. The/dev directory...........................................................................................................................17 3.5. The/usr filesystem..........................................................................................................................19 3.6. The/var filesystem..........................................................................................................................19 3.7. The/proc filesystem........................................................................................................................20 Chapter 4. Hardware, Devices, and Tools......................................................................................................22 4.1. Hardware Utilities...........................................................................................................................22 4.1.1. The MAKEDEV Script.........................................................................................................22 4.1.2. The mknod command............................................................................................................22 4.1.3. The lspci command...............................................................................................................23 4.1.4. The lsdev command...............................................................................................................23 4.1.5. The lsusb command...............................................................................................................23 4.1.6. The lsraid command..............................................................................................................23 4.1.7. The hdparm command...........................................................................................................23 4.1.8. More Hardware Resources....................................................................................................23 i The Linux System Administrator's Guide Table of Contents Chapter 4. Hardware, Devices, and Tools 4.2. Kernel Modules...............................................................................................................................23 4.2.1. lsmod.....................................................................................................................................24 4.2.2. insmod...................................................................................................................................24 4.2.3. depmod..................................................................................................................................24 4.2.4. rmmod...................................................................................................................................24 4.2.5. modprobe...............................................................................................................................24 Chapter 5. Using Disks and Other Storage Media.........................................................................................25 5.1. Two kinds of devices......................................................................................................................25 5.2. Hard disks.......................................................................................................................................26 5.3. Storage Area Networks - Draft......................................................................................................28 5.4. Network Attached Storage - Draft.................................................................................................28 5.4.1. NFS........................................................................................................................................29 5.4.2. CIFS.......................................................................................................................................29 5.5. Floppies...........................................................................................................................................29 5.6. CD-ROMs......................................................................................................................................30 5.7. Tapes...............................................................................................................................................31 5.8. Formatting.......................................................................................................................................31 5.9. Partitions.........................................................................................................................................32 5.9.1. The MBR, boot sectors and partition table............................................................................33 5.9.2. Extended and logical partitions.............................................................................................33 5.9.3. Partition types........................................................................................................................34 5.9.4. Partitioning a hard disk..........................................................................................................35 5.9.5. Device files and partitions.....................................................................................................36 5.10. Filesystems....................................................................................................................................36 5.10.1. What are filesystems?..........................................................................................................36 5.10.2. Filesystems galore...............................................................................................................37 5.10.3. Which filesystem should be used?......................................................................................39 5.10.4. Creating a filesystem...........................................................................................................39 5.10.5. Filesystem block size...........................................................................................................40 5.10.6. Filesystem comparison........................................................................................................41 5.10.7. Mounting and unmounting..................................................................................................42 5.10.8. Filesystem Security.............................................................................................................45 5.10.9. Checking filesystem integrity with fsck..............................................................................45 5.10.10. Checking for disk errors with badblocks...........................................................................46 5.10.11. Fighting fragmentation?....................................................................................................46 5.10.12. Other tools for all filesystems...........................................................................................47 5.10.13. Other tools for the ext2/ext3 filesystem............................................................................47 5.11. Disks without filesystems.............................................................................................................48 5.12. Allocating disk space....................................................................................................................49 5.12.1. Partitioning schemes............................................................................................................49 5.12.2. Logical Volume Manager (LVM).......................................................................................50 5.12.3. Space requirements..............................................................................................................50 5.12.4. Examples of hard disk allocation........................................................................................50 5.12.5. Adding more disk space for Linux......................................................................................51 5.12.6. Tips for saving disk space...................................................................................................51 ii The Linux System Administrator's Guide Table of Contents Chapter 6. Memory Management...................................................................................................................52 6.1. What is virtual memory?.................................................................................................................52 6.2. Creating a swap space.....................................................................................................................52 6.3. Using a swap space.........................................................................................................................53 6.4. Sharing swap spaces with other operating systems........................................................................54 6.5. Allocating swap space.....................................................................................................................55 6.6. The buffer cache.............................................................................................................................56 Chapter 7. System Monitoring.........................................................................................................................58 7.1. System Resources...........................................................................................................................58 7.1.1. The top command..................................................................................................................58 7.1.2. The iostat command..............................................................................................................59 7.1.3. The ps command...................................................................................................................60 7.1.4. The vmstat command............................................................................................................61 7.1.5. The lsof command.................................................................................................................61 7.1.6. Finding More Utilities...........................................................................................................62 7.2. Filesystem Usage............................................................................................................................62 7.2.1. The df command....................................................................................................................62 7.2.2. The du command...................................................................................................................62 7.2.3. Quotas....................................................................................................................................63 7.3. Monitoring Users............................................................................................................................63 7.3.1. The who command................................................................................................................63 7.3.2. The ps command -again!......................................................................................................64 7.3.3. The w command....................................................................................................................64 7.3.4. The skill command................................................................................................................64 7.3.5. nice and renice.......................................................................................................................64 Chapter 8. Boots And Shutdowns....................................................................................................................65 8.1. An overview of boots and shutdowns.............................................................................................65 8.2. The boot process in closer look......................................................................................................65 8.2.1. A Word About Bootloaders...................................................................................................67 8.3. More about shutdowns....................................................................................................................67 8.4. Rebooting........................................................................................................................................68 8.5. Single user mode.............................................................................................................................69 8.6. Emergency boot floppies................................................................................................................69 Chapter 9. init....................................................................................................................................................70 9.1. init comes first................................................................................................................................70 9.2. Configuring init to start getty: the/etc/inittab file..........................................................................70 9.3. Run levels.......................................................................................................................................71 9.4. Special configuration in/etc/inittab................................................................................................73 9.5. Booting in single user mode...........................................................................................................73 Chapter 10. Logging In And Out.....................................................................................................................75 10.1. Logins via terminals......................................................................................................................75 10.2. Logins via the network..................................................................................................................76 10.3. What login does............................................................................................................................77 10.4. X and xdm.....................................................................................................................................78 iii The Linux System Administrator's Guide Table of Contents Chapter 10. Logging In And Out 10.5. Access control...............................................................................................................................78 10.6. Shell startup..................................................................................................................................78 Chapter 11. Managing user accounts..............................................................................................................79 11.1. What's an account?........................................................................................................................79 11.2. Creating a user..............................................................................................................................79 11.2.1./etc/passwd and other informative files...............................................................................79 11.2.2. Picking numeric user and group ids....................................................................................80 11.2.3. Initial environment: /etc/skel...............................................................................................80 11.2.4. Creating a user by hand.......................................................................................................80 11.3. Changing user properties..............................................................................................................81 11.4. Removing a user...........................................................................................................................81 11.5. Disabling a user temporarily.........................................................................................................82 Chapter 12. Backups.........................................................................................................................................83 12.1. On the importance of being backed up.........................................................................................83 12.2. Selecting the backup medium.......................................................................................................83 12.3. Selecting the backup tool..............................................................................................................84 12.4. Simple backups.............................................................................................................................85 12.4.1. Making backups with tar.....................................................................................................85 12.4.2. Restoring files with tar........................................................................................................86 12.5. Multilevel backups........................................................................................................................87 12.6. What to back up............................................................................................................................88 12.7. Compressed backups.....................................................................................................................89 Chapter 13. Task Automation --To Be Added.............................................................................................90 Chapter 14. Keeping Time...............................................................................................................................91 14.1. The concept of localtime...............................................................................................................91 14.2. The hardware and software clocks................................................................................................92 14.3. Showing and setting time..............................................................................................................92 14.4. When the clock is wrong...............................................................................................................93 14.5. NTP - Network Time Protocol.....................................................................................................93 14.6. Basic NTP configuration...............................................................................................................94 14.7. NTP Toolkit..................................................................................................................................95 14.8. Some known NTP servers.............................................................................................................97 14.9. NTP Links.....................................................................................................................................97 Chapter 15. System Logs --To Be Added......................................................................................................98 Chapter 16. System Updates --To Be Added................................................................................................99 Chapter 17. The Linux Kernel Source..........................................................................................................100 Chapter 18. Finding Help...............................................................................................................................101 18.1. Newsgroups and Mailing Lists...................................................................................................101 18.1.1. Finding The Right Forum..................................................................................................101 iv The Linux System Administrator's Guide Table of Contents Chapter 18. Finding Help 18.1.2. Before You Post................................................................................................................101 18.1.3. Writing Your Post.............................................................................................................101 18.1.4. Formatting Your Post........................................................................................................102 18.1.5. Follow Up..........................................................................................................................102 18.1.6. More Information..............................................................................................................102 18.2. IRC..............................................................................................................................................102 18.2.1. Colours..............................................................................................................................103 18.2.2. Be Polite............................................................................................................................103 18.2.3. Type Properly, in English..................................................................................................103 18.2.4. Port scanning.....................................................................................................................103 18.2.5. Keep it in the Channel.......................................................................................................103 18.2.6. Stay On Topic....................................................................................................................104 18.2.7. CTCPs...............................................................................................................................104 18.2.8. Hacking, Cracking, Phreaking, Warezing.........................................................................104 18.2.9. Round Up..........................................................................................................................104 18.2.10. Further Reading...............................................................................................................104 Appendix A. GNU Free Documentation License.........................................................................................105 A.1. PREAMBLE................................................................................................................................105 A.2. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS....................................................................................105 A.3. VERBATIM COPYING..............................................................................................................106 A.4. COPYING IN QUANTITY.........................................................................................................106 A.5. MODIFICATIONS......................................................................................................................107 A.6. COMBINING DOCUMENTS.....................................................................................................108 A.7. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS..........................................................................................109 A.8. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS.................................................................109 A.9. TRANSLATION..........................................................................................................................109 A.10. TERMINATION........................................................................................................................109 A.11. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE.............................................................................110 A.12. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents...................................................110 Glossary (DRAFT, but not for long hopefully)............................................................................................111 Index-Draft..........................................................................................................................................115 A....................................................................................................................................................115 B....................................................................................................................................................115 C....................................................................................................................................................115 D....................................................................................................................................................116 E.....................................................................................................................................................117 F.....................................................................................................................................................117 G....................................................................................................................................................120 H....................................................................................................................................................120 I......................................................................................................................................................120 K....................................................................................................................................................120 L.....................................................................................................................................................121 M...................................................................................................................................................121 N....................................................................................................................................................121 O....................................................................................................................................................121 v The Linux System Administrator's Guide Table of Contents Glossary (DRAFT, but not for long hopefully) P.....................................................................................................................................................121 R....................................................................................................................................................122 S.....................................................................................................................................................122 T.....................................................................................................................................................122 V....................................................................................................................................................122 W...................................................................................................................................................122

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The Linux System Administrator's Guide

Version 0.9

Lars Wirzenius

Joanna Oja

Stephen Stafford

<stephen@clothcat.demon.co.uk.NOSPAM>

Alex Weeks

<draxeman@gmail.com.NOSPAM>

An introduction to system administration of a Linux system for novices.

Trademarks are owned by their owners.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free

Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no

Invariant Sections, no Front−Cover Texts, and no Back−Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the

section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

Table of Contents

About This Book.................................................................................................................................................1

1. Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................1

1.1. Joanna's acknowledgments.........................................................................................................1

1.2. Stephen's acknowledgments.......................................................................................................1

1.3. Alex's Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................2

2. Revision History..................................................................................................................................2

3. Source and pre−formatted versions available......................................................................................2

4. Typographical Conventions.................................................................................................................3

Chapter 1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................4

1.1. Linux or GNU/Linux, that is the question........................................................................................5

1.2. Trademarks.......................................................................................................................................5

Chapter 2. Overview of a Linux System...........................................................................................................7

2.1. Various parts of an operating system................................................................................................7

2.2. Important parts of the kernel.............................................................................................................7

2.3. Major services in a UNIX system.....................................................................................................8

2.3.1. init............................................................................................................................................9

2.3.2. Logins from terminals.............................................................................................................9

2.3.3. Syslog......................................................................................................................................9

2.3.4. Periodic command execution: cron and at............................................................................10

2.3.5. Graphical user interface.........................................................................................................10

2.3.6. Networking............................................................................................................................10

2.3.7. Network logins......................................................................................................................11

2.3.8. Network file systems.............................................................................................................11

2.3.9. Mail.......................................................................................................................................11

2.3.10. Printing................................................................................................................................12

2.3.11. The filesystem layout..........................................................................................................12

Chapter 3. Overview of the Directory Tree....................................................................................................13

3.1. Background.....................................................................................................................................13

3.2. The root filesystem.........................................................................................................................14

3.3. The /etc directory............................................................................................................................15

3.4. The /dev directory...........................................................................................................................17

3.5. The /usr filesystem..........................................................................................................................19

3.6. The /var filesystem..........................................................................................................................19

3.7. The /proc filesystem........................................................................................................................20

Chapter 4. Hardware, Devices, and Tools......................................................................................................22

4.1. Hardware Utilities...........................................................................................................................22

4.1.1. The MAKEDEV Script.........................................................................................................22

4.1.2. The mknod command............................................................................................................22

4.1.3. The lspci command...............................................................................................................23

4.1.4. The lsdev command...............................................................................................................23

4.1.5. The lsusb command...............................................................................................................23

4.1.6. The lsraid command..............................................................................................................23

4.1.7. The hdparm command...........................................................................................................23

4.1.8. More Hardware Resources....................................................................................................23

The Linux System Administrator's Guide

Table of Contents

Chapter 4. Hardware, Devices, and Tools

4.2. Kernel Modules...............................................................................................................................23

4.2.1. lsmod.....................................................................................................................................24

4.2.2. insmod...................................................................................................................................24

4.2.3. depmod..................................................................................................................................24

4.2.4. rmmod...................................................................................................................................24

4.2.5. modprobe...............................................................................................................................24

Chapter 5. Using Disks and Other Storage Media.........................................................................................25

5.1. Two kinds of devices......................................................................................................................25

5.2. Hard disks.......................................................................................................................................26

5.3. Storage Area Networks − Draft......................................................................................................28

5.4. Network Attached Storage − Draft.................................................................................................28

5.4.1. NFS........................................................................................................................................29

5.4.2. CIFS.......................................................................................................................................29

5.5. Floppies...........................................................................................................................................29

5.6. CD−ROMs......................................................................................................................................30

5.7. Tapes...............................................................................................................................................31

5.8. Formatting.......................................................................................................................................31

5.9. Partitions.........................................................................................................................................32

5.9.1. The MBR, boot sectors and partition table............................................................................33

5.9.2. Extended and logical partitions.............................................................................................33

5.9.3. Partition types........................................................................................................................34

5.9.4. Partitioning a hard disk..........................................................................................................35

5.9.5. Device files and partitions.....................................................................................................36

5.10. Filesystems....................................................................................................................................36

5.10.1. What are filesystems?..........................................................................................................36

5.10.2. Filesystems galore...............................................................................................................37

5.10.3. Which filesystem should be used?......................................................................................39

5.10.4. Creating a filesystem...........................................................................................................39

5.10.5. Filesystem block size...........................................................................................................40

5.10.6. Filesystem comparison........................................................................................................41

5.10.7. Mounting and unmounting..................................................................................................42

5.10.8. Filesystem Security.............................................................................................................45

5.10.9. Checking filesystem integrity with fsck..............................................................................45

5.10.10. Checking for disk errors with badblocks...........................................................................46

5.10.11. Fighting fragmentation?....................................................................................................46

5.10.12. Other tools for all filesystems...........................................................................................47

5.10.13. Other tools for the ext2/ext3 filesystem............................................................................47

5.11. Disks without filesystems.............................................................................................................48

5.12. Allocating disk space....................................................................................................................49

5.12.1. Partitioning schemes............................................................................................................49

5.12.2. Logical Volume Manager (LVM).......................................................................................50

5.12.3. Space requirements..............................................................................................................50

5.12.4. Examples of hard disk allocation........................................................................................50

5.12.5. Adding more disk space for Linux......................................................................................51

5.12.6. Tips for saving disk space...................................................................................................51

The Linux System Administrator's Guide

Table of Contents

Chapter 6. Memory Management...................................................................................................................52

6.1. What is virtual memory?.................................................................................................................52

6.2. Creating a swap space.....................................................................................................................52

6.3. Using a swap space.........................................................................................................................53

6.4. Sharing swap spaces with other operating systems........................................................................54

6.5. Allocating swap space.....................................................................................................................55

6.6. The buffer cache.............................................................................................................................56

Chapter 7. System Monitoring.........................................................................................................................58

7.1. System Resources...........................................................................................................................58

7.1.1. The top command..................................................................................................................58

7.1.2. The iostat command..............................................................................................................59

7.1.3. The ps command...................................................................................................................60

7.1.4. The vmstat command............................................................................................................61

7.1.5. The lsof command.................................................................................................................61

7.1.6. Finding More Utilities...........................................................................................................62

7.2. Filesystem Usage............................................................................................................................62

7.2.1. The df command....................................................................................................................62

7.2.2. The du command...................................................................................................................62

7.2.3. Quotas....................................................................................................................................63

7.3. Monitoring Users............................................................................................................................63

7.3.1. The who command................................................................................................................63

7.3.2. The ps command −again!......................................................................................................64

7.3.3. The w command....................................................................................................................64

7.3.4. The skill command................................................................................................................64

7.3.5. nice and renice.......................................................................................................................64

Chapter 8. Boots And Shutdowns....................................................................................................................65

8.1. An overview of boots and shutdowns.............................................................................................65

8.2. The boot process in closer look......................................................................................................65

8.2.1. A Word About Bootloaders...................................................................................................67

8.3. More about shutdowns....................................................................................................................67

8.4. Rebooting........................................................................................................................................68

8.5. Single user mode.............................................................................................................................69

8.6. Emergency boot floppies................................................................................................................69

Chapter 9. init....................................................................................................................................................70

9.1. init comes first................................................................................................................................70

9.2. Configuring init to start getty: the /etc/inittab file..........................................................................70

9.3. Run levels.......................................................................................................................................71

9.4. Special configuration in /etc/inittab................................................................................................73

9.5. Booting in single user mode...........................................................................................................73

Chapter 10. Logging In And Out.....................................................................................................................75

10.1. Logins via terminals......................................................................................................................75

10.2. Logins via the network..................................................................................................................76

10.3. What login does............................................................................................................................77

10.4. X and xdm.....................................................................................................................................78

The Linux System Administrator's Guide

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