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Foundations of Signal Processing
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Our main goals in this book and its companion volume, Fourier and Wavelet Signal Processing (FWSP) [57], are to enable an understanding of state-of-the-art signal processing methods and techniques, as well as to provide a solid foundation for those hoping to advance the theory and practice of signal processing.
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Foundations of Signal Processing
Martin Vetterli
´
Ecole Polytechnique F´ed´erale de Lausanne
Jelena Kovaˇcevi´c
Carnegie Mellon University
Vivek K Goyal
Massachusetts Institute of Technology & Boston University
May 31, 2014
Copyright (c) 2014 Martin Vetterli, Jelena Kovaˇcevi´c, and Vivek K Goyal.
These materials are protected by copyright under the
Attri bution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License
from Creative Commons.
Foundations of Signal Processing Copyright 2014 M. Vetterli, J. Kovaˇcevi´c, and V. K. Goyal
Cambridge University Press (ISBN 110703860X) v1.1 [May 2014] [free version] Comments to b ook-errata@FourierAndWavelets.org

To Marie-Laure, for her ∞ patience and many other qualities,
Thomas and No´emie, whom I might still convince of the beauty of this material,
and my parents, who gave me all the opportunities one can wish for.
— MV
To Danica and Giovanni, who make life beautiful.
To my parents, who made me who I am.
— JK
To Allie, Sundeep, and my family, who e nc ourage me unceasingly, and
to the educators who made me want to be one of them.
— VKG
Foundations of Signal Processing Copyright 2014 M. Vetterli, J. Kovaˇcevi´c, and V. K. Goyal
Cambridge University Press (ISBN 110703860X) v1.1 [May 2014] [free version] Comments to b ook-errata@FourierAndWavelets.org

The cover illustration captures an experiment first described by Isaac Newton in
Opticks in 1730, showing that white light can be split into its co lor components and
then synthesized back into white light. It is a physical implementation of a decom-
position of white light into its Fourier co mponents – the color s of the rainbow –
followed by a synthesis to recover the o riginal.
Foundations of Signal Processing Copyright 2014 M. Vetterli, J. Kovaˇcevi´c, and V. K. Goyal
Cambridge University Press (ISBN 110703860X) v1.1 [May 2014] [free version] Comments to b ook-errata@FourierAndWavelets.org

Contents
Quick reference page xv
Acknowledgments xxi
Preface xxiii
1 On rainbows and s pectra 1
2 From Euclid to Hilbert 9
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Vector spaces 18
2.2.1 Definition and properties 18
2.2.2 Inner product 23
2.2.3 Norm 27
2.2.4 Standard spaces 30
2.3 Hilbert spaces 35
2.3.1 Convergence 36
2.3.2 Completeness 37
2.3.3 Linear operators 40
2.4 Approximations, projections, and decompositions 50
2.4.1 Projection theorem 51
2.4.2 Projection operators 54
2.4.3 Direct sums and subspace decompositions 60
2.4.4 Minimum mean-squared error estimation 63
2.5 Bases and frames 69
2.5.1 Bases and Riesz bases 69
2.5.2 Orthonormal b ases 76
2.5.3 Biorthogonal pairs of bases 86
2.5.4 Frames 101
2.5.5 Matrix representations of vectors and linear operators 109
2.6 Computational aspects 119
2.6.1 Cost, complexity, and asymptotic notations 120
2.6.2 Precision 123
2.6.3 Conditioning 126
2.6.4 Solving sy stems of linear equations 129
2.A Elements of analysis and topology 135
2.A.1 Basic defi nitions 135
ix
Foundations of Signal Processing Copyright 2014 M. Vetterli, J. Kovaˇcevi´c, and V. K. Goyal
Cambridge University Press (ISBN 110703860X) v1.1 [May 2014] [free version] Comments to b ook-errata@FourierAndWavelets.org

x Contents
2.A.2 Convergence 136
2.A.3 Interchange theorems 138
2.A.4 Inequalities 139
2.A.5 Integration by parts 140
2.B Elements of linear algebra 141
2.B.1 Basic definitions and properties 141
2.B.2 Special matrices 147
2.C Elements of probability 151
2.C.1 Basic definitions 151
2.C.2 Standard distributions 154
2.C.3 Estimation 155
2.D Basis concepts 159
Chapter at a glance 161
Historical remarks 162
Further reading 162
Exercises with solutions 163
Exercises 169
3 Sequences and discrete-time systems 181
3.1 Introduction 182
3.2 Sequences 185
3.2.1 Infinite-length sequ ences 185
3.2.2 Finite-length sequences 192
3.2.3 Two-dimensional sequences 193
3.3 Systems 195
3.3.1 Discrete-time systems and their prop erties 195
3.3.2 Difference equations 202
3.3.3 Linear shift-invariant systems 205
3.4 Discrete-time Fourier transform 216
3.4.1 Definition of the DTFT 216
3.4.2 Existence and convergence of the D TFT 218
3.4.3 Properties of t he DTFT 221
3.4.4 Frequency response of filters 227
3.5 z-transform 233
3.5.1 Definition of the z-transform 234
3.5.2 Existence and convergence of the z-transform 235
3.5.3 Properties of t he z-transform 240
3.5.4 z-transform of filters 249
3.6 Discrete Fourier transform 252
3.6.1 Definition of the DFT 252
3.6.2 Properties of t he DFT 255
3.6.3 Frequency response of filters 259
3.7 Multirate sequences and systems 264
3.7.1 Downsampling 265
3.7.2 Upsampling 268
3.7.3 Comb in ations of downsampling and upsampling 270
3.7.4 Comb in ations of downsampling, upsampling, and filtering 272
3.7.5 Polyphase representation 278
3.8 Stochastic processes and systems 285
3.8.1 Stochastic processes 285
Foundations of Signal Processing Copyright 2014 M. Vetterli, J. Kovaˇcevi´c, and V. K. Goyal
Cambridge University Press (ISBN 110703860X) v1.1 [May 2014] [free version] Comments to b ook-errata@FourierAndWavelets.org
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