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Mathematics for Computer Science 2015
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“mcs” — 2015/5/18 — 1:43 — page i — #1
Mathematics for Computer Science
revised Monday 18
th
May, 2015, 01:43
Eric Lehman
Google Inc.
F Thomson Leighton
Department of Mathematics
and the Computer Science and AI Laboratory,
Massachussetts Institute of Technology;
Akamai Technologies
Albert R Meyer
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
and the Computer Science and AI Laboratory,
Massachussetts Institute of Technology
2015, Eric Lehman, F Tom Leighton, Albert R Meyer. This work is available under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 license.

“mcs” — 2015/5/18 — 1:43 — page ii — #2

“mcs” — 2015/5/18 — 1:43 — page iii — #3
Contents
I Proofs
Introduction 3
0.1 References 4
1 What is a Proof? 5
1.1 Propositions 5
1.2 Predicates 8
1.3 The Axiomatic Method 8
1.4 Our Axioms 9
1.5 Proving an Implication 11
1.6 Proving an “If and Only If” 13
1.7 Proof by Cases 15
1.8 Proof by Contradiction 16
1.9 Good Proofs in Practice 17
1.10 References 19
2 The Well Ordering Principle 27
2.1 Well Ordering Proofs 27
2.2 Template for Well Ordering Proofs 28
2.3 Factoring into Primes 30
2.4 Well Ordered Sets 31
3 Logical Formulas 41
3.1 Propositions from Propositions 42
3.2 Propositional Logic in Computer Programs 45
3.3 Equivalence and Validity 48
3.4 The Algebra of Propositions 50
3.5 The SAT Problem 55
3.6 Predicate Formulas 56
3.7 References 61
4 Mathematical Data Types 81
4.1 Sets 81
4.2 Sequences 86
4.3 Functions 87
4.4 Binary Relations 89
4.5 Finite Cardinality 93

“mcs” — 2015/5/18 — 1:43 — page iv — #4
iv Contents
5 Induction 115
5.1 Ordinary Induction 115
5.2 Strong Induction 124
5.3 Strong Induction vs. Induction vs. Well Ordering 129
5.4 State Machines 130
6 Recursive Data Types 173
6.1 Recursive Definitions and Structural Induction 173
6.2 Strings of Matched Brackets 177
6.3 Recursive Functions on Nonnegative Integers 180
6.4 Arithmetic Expressions 183
6.5 Induction in Computer Science 188
7 Infinite Sets 205
7.1 Infinite Cardinality 206
7.2 The Halting Problem 215
7.3 The Logic of Sets 219
7.4 Does All This Really Work? 222
II Structures
Introduction 241
8 Number Theory 243
8.1 Divisibility 243
8.2 The Greatest Common Divisor 248
8.3 Prime Mysteries 254
8.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 257
8.5 Alan Turing 259
8.6 Modular Arithmetic 263
8.7 Remainder Arithmetic 265
8.8 Turing’s Code (Version 2.0) 268
8.9 Multiplicative Inverses and Cancelling 270
8.10 Euler’s Theorem 274
8.11 RSA Public Key Encryption 279
8.12 What has SAT got to do with it? 281
8.13 References 282
9 Directed graphs & Partial Orders 317
9.1 Vertex Degrees 319
9.2 Walks and Paths 320

“mcs” — 2015/5/18 — 1:43 — page v — #5
v Contents
9.3 Adjacency Matrices 323
9.4 Walk Relations 326
9.5 Directed Acyclic Graphs & Scheduling 327
9.6 Partial Orders 335
9.7 Representing Partial Orders by Set Containment 339
9.8 Linear Orders 340
9.9 Product Orders 340
9.10 Equivalence Relations 341
9.11 Summary of Relational Properties 343
10 Communication Networks 373
10.1 Complete Binary Tree 373
10.2 Routing Problems 373
10.3 Network Diameter 374
10.4 Switch Count 375
10.5 Network Latency 376
10.6 Congestion 376
10.7 2-D Array 377
10.8 Butterfly 379
10.9 Benes Network
ˇ
381
11 Simple Graphs 393
11.1 Vertex Adjacency and Degrees 393
11.2 Sexual Demographics in America 395
11.3 Some Common Graphs 397
11.4 Isomorphism 399
11.5 Bipartite Graphs & Matchings 401
11.6 The Stable Marriage Problem 406
11.7 Coloring 413
11.8 Simple Walks 417
11.9 Connectivity 419
11.10 Forests & Trees 424
11.11 References 433
12 Planar Graphs 473
12.1 Drawing Graphs in the Plane 473
12.2 Definitions of Planar Graphs 473
12.3 Euler’s Formula 484
12.4 Bounding the Number of Edges in a Planar Graph 485
12.5 Returning to K
5
and K
3;3
486
12.6 Coloring Planar Graphs 487
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