光学微机电系统：化学分析与生物医学的最新进展

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《光学微机械系统在化学分析与生物医学中的应用：2016年进展》是2016年由英国工程与技术学会出版的一本书，它旨在概述光学微电子机械系统（Optical Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems, MEMS）领域的最新研究成果。该书特别关注了化学分析和生物医学这两个近年来发展迅速的领域，体现了光学微系统技术在这些关键领域的创新和应用。书中收录的内容反映了作者认为当前迫切需要向学术界报告的研究成果，包括既有但仍需更新以反映最新文献状态的主题，以及全新的研究方向。尽管各章节涉及的主题多样，但都紧密围绕光学和小型化这一核心概念展开，强调了微型化技术如何推动光学功能的集成和优化。在这个系列的其他卷中，例如第二卷介绍了模拟集成电路设计的电流模式方法，第三卷探讨了模拟-数字混合信号ASIC的设计技巧、工具和应用，第四卷则关注算法和知识基础的VLSI设计自动化等。这些书籍展现了微电子技术在不同领域的广泛运用和发展。光学微机械系统在化学分析中的应用可能涉及到微流控、传感器阵列和光谱分析等方面，利用微尺度结构的高灵敏度和精确控制能力来检测和分析化学物质。例如，微孔或微腔可以作为化学反应器，而微镜技术可用于实时监测化学反应过程。在生物医学领域，光学MEMS能够应用于生物传感器、细胞培养和分析、基因测序设备以及生物成像系统。这些系统通常依赖于微制造技术，如微镜阵列、微驱动器和微型光学元件，以实现对生物样本的高效处理和检测，对于精准医疗和生物技术研发具有重要意义。《光学微机械系统在化学分析与生物医学中的应用：2016年进展》是一本综合了前沿技术和最新研究成果的著作，为读者提供了深入理解光学微系统如何在这些关键领域推动科技进步的窗口。通过阅读这本书，研究人员和工程师能够了解到最新的设计思路、实验方法和技术趋势，这对于推动相关行业的未来发展具有重要价值。

sensors into micro-scale optofluidics are briefly discussed. NAO structures are used

for detection and sensing of various biomolecules with high sensitivity.

I want to express my sincere gratitude to many people who made this book

possible. First and foremost, I thank the authors of the individual chapters for their

excellent work. These authors are the top researchers in the relevant fields.

Throughout the whole process from drafting to revising, these researchers

demonstrated the highest scholarly quality and ethics. It has been a privilege to

work with these world-class researchers, and I thank them wholeheartedly. The

materials in this book are obviously drawn from the work by many researchers

other than the authors of individual chapters. On behalf of all chapter authors,

I thank these colleagues for their tremendous effort that has significantly advanced

our field. Owing to limited space, many of them must regrettably remain unnamed;

in many cases, their pertinent works must unfortunately be omitted. In fact, as

mentioned before, some other important topics in optical MEMS could not be

included in one single book, and should be in a future book project if possible.

Other people generously put forth their effort in the completion of this book.

I wish to thank Dr. Guangyun Lin, Kari Van Grinsven, and Jayer A. Fernandes for

helping to proofread the chapters, and Dr. Hewei Liu for preparing some of the

drawings. I feel indebted to Christoph von Friedeburg at IET for his interest in this

topic and initiation of this book project, and Paul Deards, Jennifer Grace, and Priya

Devaraj for the support and assistance throughout the process. Finally, this project

would not have been possible without the support from my grants from the National

Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health of the USA; to both

funding agencies, I am deeply grateful.

Hongrui Jiang

November 2015 Madison, WI, USA

Preface xv

Chapter 1

Introduction

Mohammad J. Moghimi and Hongrui Jiang

1.1 Optical MEMS and optofluidics

Miniaturization of optical systems and components via traditional micromachining

techniques has given rise to the field of optical micro-electro-mechanical systems

(MEMS). Optical MEMS (sometimes called micro-opto-electro-mechanical sys-

tems, MOEMS) combine optical, electrical, and mechanical components to form a

micro-scale system on a single platform. The main advantages of optical MEMS

include but are not limited to low cost of manufacturing, small size, reliability, and

low power consumption. Optical MEMS technology leverages batch fabrication

techniques to minimize the cost of manufacturing. The micro/nanofabrication

techniques such as photolithography, thin film deposition, and etching have

been adopted from integrated circuits technology. Since these techniques were well

developed for semiconductor industry, micro-optical systems can have higher

precision than traditional macroscopic optics. In addition, micro-optical devices

can use MEMS actuation schemes to control and fine tune the optical parameters of

a system, such as focal length and beam direction. Miniaturized tunable lenses,

mirrors, filters, and modulators have all been demonstrated and commercialized in

recent years. The thriving field of optical MEMS has played a fundamental role in

advancing displays, high-speed telecommunications, and biomedical devices.

Integration of microfluidics along with micro/nanoscale optics on a single chip

can now be performed by exploiting micromachining and nanofabrication

processes. The advent of optofluidics has also been an important step in progressing

towards lab-on-a-chip devices, which have extensive applications in healthcare,

environmental studies, and life science.

1.2 History

1.2.1 Processes and materials

The usage of MEMS for optical applications was initially inspired by the devel-

opment of sensors and actuators on thin films in 1960s. This field started with the

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

fabrication of suspended microstructures by the selective etching of silicon sub-

strates. One early example is the air-gap transistor with a suspended metal gate

cantilever which was successfully fabricated at Westinghouse Research Labs in the

mid-1960s [1]. Early micro-scale devices primarily used single crystal silicon as a

mechanical structure since fabrication processes were well developed for silicon in

order to manufacture microelectronic circuits on a monolithic platform [2–4]. At

that time, anisotropic etching of the silicon was the dominant process used to create

microstructures on silicon substrates. Boron-doped silicon was used as an etch-stop

layer to precisely control the depth of etching to form micro-scale devices on the

thin films. For example, at Berkeley in 1980, composite cantilever beams, com-

posed of silicon dioxide (SiO

) and doped silicon, were released by anisotropic

etching of a silicon substrate [5].

Polycrystalline silicon is another material which is attractive for MEMS appli-

cations. Poly-silicon (poly-Si) was first used as a structural material for resonant

cantilever sensors [6]. Since 1960s, poly-Si has been widely used for electrical contact

in the gates of the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors [7]. Low pressure

chemical-vapor-deposition (LPCVD) process was used to deposit poly-Si [8] and

surface micromachining was utilized to fabricate poly-Si cantilever beams with SiO

as a sacrificial layer [9]. However, non-uniform internal stress on the poly-Si layer

caused the beams to curve away from the substrate. This suggested that the residual

stress on the poly-Si layer needed to be controlled in order to achieve flat cantilever

beams. This was a major research topic in the MEMS community for over a decade

and tremendous progress was made. Several viable solutions, including heavily doping

the poly-Si layer [10, 11], annealing after deposition [12], and a multipoly process

[13], were suggested to reduce the residual stress and achieve flat cantilever beams.

Conformal deposition of poly-Si followed by thermal oxidation provided the

capability of achieving a uniform coating of poly SiO

layer in deep trenches [14].

This was an important step towards achieving a conformal etch-resistant layer as

well as electrical isolation. Conformal coating of poly-Si paved the way for fabri-

cation of more-sophisticated structures such as bearings, linkages, and motors. In

the late 1980s, micro-motors based on poly-Si were demonstrated by Professor

Muller and his collaborators at Berkeley [15, 16]. Their impressive results drew

large amounts of attention to the field.

1.2.2 Early devices and systems

The first market for optical MEMS devices was display technology. In the early

1970s, the fabrication of micromachined spatial light modulators (SLMs) gave rise

to projection displays [17, 18]. In the 1980s, the appearance of the digital mirror

device (DMD) made a significant impact on high-quality digital light processing

(DLP) projections [19]. Mechanically actuated micromirrors, which were deve-

loped and commercialized by Texas Instruments, are now widely used in cinemas,

TVs, and portable projectors. As shown in Figure 1.1, the DMD consists of an array

of highly reflective microscopic mirrors corresponding to the pixels of the images.

The bistable mirrors can be tilted 12



to ON and OFF states (Figure 1.1(a)). When

2 Optical MEMS for chemical analysis and biomedicine

the mirror is ON, it reflects the light to a projection lens in order to make a bright

pixel on the display. For OFF state, the mirror reflects the light out of the lens area

and creates a dark pixel. Because the fabrication process is compatible with

complementary metal-oxide semiconductor technology, the most recent devices

come with built-in static random access memories. The binary data of the displayed

images are stored in the memories, which are located beneath each cell. Color

images can be displayed by multiplexing multiple light sources. Advanced devices

with mirror size 5.4 mm can project full-HD (1080p) videos.

The Mirasol display, the most recent display technology based on optical MEMS,

was developed for portable devices by Qualcomm Incorporated and significantly

minimizes the power consumption of displays. This technology eliminates the

requirement for backlight illumination, which is necessary for current liquid crystal

displays (LCDs). The pixels of the display consist of two plates with an

adjustable gap in between. The reflected beams from the plates interfere to create

various colors depending on the gap height. The interferometric display is com-

pletely visible under sunny conditions whereas visibility of current LCDs is reduced.

In the 1990s and 2000s, optical MEMS devices made a substantial impact in the

field of optical telecommunications [20]. Lightwave communication is inevitable with

the increasing demand for high-speed internet. The main advantage of optical com-

munication over conventional electronic systems is that the speed of photons in fiber

optics is higher than the speed of electrons in cables. Thus, electrons are replaced with

photons to carry information and achieve high-speed communication. Global tele-

communication systems, which connect all continents, rely solely on fiber optics and

optical components. Optical MEMS technology is now a mature technology and

customized optical components are available to replace their electronic analogues.

For instance, optical filters, switches, spectrometers, wavelengths add/drop multi-

plexers, etc. have been developed for optical networks.

The usage of optical MEMS for biomedical applications was first demon-

strated at Stanford in the late 1990s. A miniature confocal scanning microscope

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.1 Texas instrument micromirror device: (a) concept of digital

micromirror arrays in operation with ON and OFF states, (b) top view

of mirrors with metal coating arranged in rectangular array,

the central mirror is tilted, and (c) top view of the device, central

mirror was removed. Reprinted with permission from Texas

Instruments

Introduction 3

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