"手册：视觉光学基础与眼睛光学第1卷"

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The "Handbook of Visual Optics: Fundamentals and Eye Optics" is a comprehensive guide edited by Pablo Artal, covering the basics of visual optics and the optical properties of the eye. The first volume in a series, this handbook is a valuable resource for students, researchers, and professionals in the field of optometry and ophthalmology. The book begins with an introduction section that provides an overview of the topics covered in the following chapters. It then delves into the fundamentals of visual optics, including the principles of light, refraction, and image formation. The optical properties of the eye are thoroughly explored, with discussions on topics such as accommodation, aberrations, and retinal imaging. The handbook features contributions from leading experts in the field, providing a wealth of knowledge and insights for readers. Each chapter is well-organized and easy to follow, with clear explanations and diagrams to aid understanding. MATLAB® software is also mentioned, showcasing its application in visual optics research and analysis. In addition to the technical content, the handbook includes practical information on instrumentation and vision correction. It offers guidance on the use of optical instruments, such as slit lamps and ophthalmoscopes, as well as the latest advancements in vision correction techniques. This volume sets the stage for the second volume, which focuses on instrumentation and vision correction. Overall, the "Handbook of Visual Optics: Fundamentals and Eye Optics" is a valuable resource for anyone seeking a deeper understanding of the principles and applications of visual optics. Whether you are a student looking to expand your knowledge or a professional seeking to stay current with developments in the field, this handbook is an essential reference guide. With its comprehensive coverage, clear explanations, and contributions from experts, it is sure to be a valuable addition to any library or bookshelf.

Contributorsxii

Susana Marcos

Instituto de Optica

Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientícas

Madrid, Spain

Yoshi Ohno

Sensor Science Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, Maryland

Jean-Marie Parel

Bascom Palmer Eye Institute

and

College of Engineering

University of Miami

Miami, Florida

Denis G. Pelli

Department of Psychology

Center for Neural Science

New York University

New York, New York

Pablo Pérez-Merino

Instituto de Optica

Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientícas

Madrid, Spain

Scott Read

School of Optometry and Vision Science

Queensland University of Technology

Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Robert Rosén

Applied Research

AMO Groningen BV

Groningen, the Netherlands

José Sasián

College of Optical Sciences

University of Arizona

Tucson, Arizona

Jim Schwiegerling

College of Optical Sciences

University of Arizona

Tucson, Arizona

Jacob G. Sivak

School of Optometry and Vision Science

University of Waterloo

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Joshua A. Solomon

Centre for Applied Vision Research

City University London

London, United Kingdom

Juan Tabernero

Laboratorio de Óptica

Universidad de Murcia

Murcia, Spain

Thomas J.T.P. van den Berg

Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience

Royal Academy

Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Stephen Vincent

School of Optometry and Vision Science

Queensland University of Technology

Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Brian Vohnsen

School of Physics

University College Dublin

Dublin, Ireland

Sarah Walters

Center for Visual Science

University of Rochester

Rochester, New York

Brian A. Wandell

Department of Electrical Engineering

and

Psychology Department

Stanford University

Stanford, California

Gerald Westheimer

Department of Molecular and Cell Biology

University of California, Berkeley

Berkeley, California

David R. Williams

Center for Visual Science

University of Rochester

Rochester, New York

David A. Wilson

Brien Holden Vision Institute

and

School of Optometry and Vision Science

University of New South Wales

Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Jonathan Winawer

Department of Psychology

Center for Neural Science

New York University

New York, New York

Barry Winn

Sohar University

Sohar, Sultanate of Oman

History of physiological optics

in the twentieth century

Gerald Westheimer

1.1 STATUS AT THE BEGINNING

OFTHE CENTURY

Physiological Optics, as conrmed by its central manifestation,

Helmholtz’s three-volume handbook, was understood at the

time to be synonymous with the current Vision Science. But

nomenclature has to go along with the explosive expansion

of scientic knowledge. Hence the more optical components

are now subsumed under Visual Optics, and even here further

subdivision is needed. Optical imagery in the living eye is

continually conditioned on factors arising from being embedded

in motor apparatuses, specically those controlling the pupil

aperture and the ciliary muscle. Hence a division into structural

visual optics, relating to the image-forming properties of the

static normal eye, and functional visual optics, which would fold

in accommodative and aperture size factors, seems indicated.

ough it is not recognized as a distinct discipline, one can

identify a branch of research as histological optics. Insofar as it

transmits light unimpeded, eye tissue, such as the cornea and

the crystalline lens, needs to have unusual biological structure.

is became more evident and constituted a challenge around

the middle of the century when electron microscopy began to

reveal the subcellular makeup of corneal and lenticular layers.

e pioneering study by David Maurice (1957) on the cornea

was inuential here.

e nal biological stage of light capture resides in the

receptors. Starting with an observation by Ernst Brücke in the

1840s, there have been consistent attempts to assign to them

special light-gathering properties. e directional sensitivity and

wave guide nature of retinal receptors has been an active area

now for the last 80years. It may be noted parenthetically that the

optics of invertebrate eyes, left out of consideration in this review,

has deservedly been given much attention (Exner 1891, Snyder

and Menzel 1975, Land and Nilsson 2002).

1.2 THE FOUNDATIONS

e eye’s image-forming properties were well understood in the

middle of the eighteenth century as shown in the classic treatise

by Robert Smith (1689–1768) (Smith 1738). rough the eorts

of astronomers, for example, Bessel, Seidel, and Airy (1801–1892),

optics as a discipline was thoroughly established in the nine-

teenth century. Maxwell’s (1831–1879) electromagnetic theory

took command of the subject in 1861 and has never needed

superseding. e giants of physiological optics, omas Young

(1773–1839), Jan Purkinje (1787–1869), Listing (1808–1882), and

Contents

1.1 Status at the beginning ofthe century 3

1.2 e foundations 3

1.3 Structural optics of the eye 4

1.3.1 Eye dimension and axial length 4

1.3.2 Cornea 4

1.3.3 e crystalline lens 4

1.3.4 Transmission of the ocular media 5

1.3.5 Retinal optics 5

1.4 e retinal image 5

1.4.1 Aberrations of the eye 5

1.4.2 Quality of the retinal image 5

1.4.3 Optical transfer function 6

1.4.4 Strehl ratio 6

1.4.5 Stray light 6

1.5 Ophthalmic instrumentation 7

1.5.1 Ophthalmoscopy 7

1.5.2 Optometers and automatic objective refractometers 7

1.6 Spurt at the end of the twentieth century 7

References 8

History of physiological optics in the twentieth century4

Introduction

Helmholtz (1821–1894), laid and cemented the foundations, and

ophthalmologists Donders (1818–1889), Landolt (1846–1926),

and Snellen (1834–1908) developed clinical applications. us,

a century ago, at the time of the beginning of the First World

War, a student had available comprehensive compendia containing

the available knowledge, specically Helmholtz’s Physiological

Optics in the new edition updated in particular by Gullstrand

(1862–1930), the Graefe-Saemisch Handbuch der Augenheilkunde

in its many volumes and several editions, followed in the next

couple of decades by important chapters in Vol XII of Bethe

etal., Handbuch der normalen und pathologischen Physiologie

(1932) and in Abderhalden’s Handbuch (1920), and in Vol 1

of Duke-Elder’s Textbook of Ophthalmology (1932). When the

author entered optometry school in 1940, the assigned textbook,

the second edition of Emsley’s Visual Optics (Emsley 1939),

contained a treatment of the subject that would rival current

accounts and in some respects exceed their scope. By that time,

too, quantum theory insofar as its characterization of the photon

was concerned had solid footing and quite soon thereafter gripped

the vision community when used to underpin our understanding

of the absolute visual threshold (Hecht etal. 1942). e vision

community has been well served by the authoritative treatment of

the subject by Yves LeGrand (1908–1986) in various versions of

his textbook (LeGrand 1949), a model of clarity.

Exhaustive literature surveys of vision science up to the

beginning of the twentieth century had been provided in the

encyclopedic scholarship displayed in the appendixes by A.

Koenig to the second edition of Helmholtz’s Physiological Optics

(almost 8000 references up to 1894) and F. Hofmann in his

Graefe-Saemisch Handbuch chapters (almost 1500 references on

spatial vision alone) and by A. Tschermak in the voluminous foot-

notes of his chapters in Bethe etal. Handbuch (Tschermak 1931).

As will be seen, developments in visual optics during the

second half of the twentieth century required an expanded view

beyond geometrical optics and the simple application of dirac-

tion theory in Airy’s disk, yet the foundations for it were well

in place. Abbe (1873) and Rayleigh (1896) in their treatment of

microscope resolution used a framework that contained, almost

explicitly, all the elements that were to become mainstream in the

Fourier theory of optics that has since become dominant. ough

it was more of academic than practical interest at the time, the

theory applicable to coherent light (and what is more challeng-

ing, partially coherent light) was put on the table by van Cittert

(1934), and so were the celebrated polynomials of Zernike (1934).

e upswing in the growth of optics, specically as it plays a

role in vision, in the middle of the twentieth century thus had

their origin elsewhere. Most prominently, it was the harnessing

of scientic and industrial resources in the conduct of the Second

World War that ended in 1945. e scientic community virtually

unanimously rallied behind the war eort, contributing insight and

inventiveness to a heady mixture that also included technological

innovation and industrial prowess. After the war, this continued

in university and some corporate laboratories, blossoming into a

research enterprise of unprecedented magnitude and productivity.

e sequence into cybernetics (Wiener 1948), information

theory (Shannon and Weaver 1949), and the linear systems

approach (Trimmer 1950) and control theory was seamless and

so was the progress toward labs equipped with oscilloscopes,

photomultipliers, digital computers, transistor devices, in time

followed by lasers, LCD, and deformable mirrors. For decades,

vision laboratories thrived on “war surplus” lenses, mirrors,

prisms, and lters. Light that was once generated by candles,

and had its intensity controlled by the inverse square law and

its duration by episcotister disks, was produced by lamps with

specic laments and then by high-pressure mercury arcs with

wavelength range restricted by narrowband interference lters

and intensity adjusted by neutral density wedges. To achieve

high retinal illuminance, the laments were imaged in the pupil

in Maxwellian view well before its optical subtleties had been

realized (Westheimer 1966).

1.3 STRUCTURAL OPTICS OF THE EYE

1.3.1 EYE DIMENSION AND AXIAL LENGTH

e ingenious method of measuring the eye’s axial length by

utilizing x-ray phosphenes (Goldmann and Hagen 1942) soon

gave way to sonography that in the form of corneal pachometry

(Molinari 1982) is in clinical use and now has become a reliable

means of evaluating the refractive needs associated with cataract

extraction (Hoer 1981).

1.3.2 CORNEA

Because it is the principal source of the eye’s refractive power

and because, unlike the other refractive surfaces, it is immedi-

ately accessible, the cornea has always attracted much attention.

Gullstrand in his appendix to the ird Edition of Helmholtz

went into much detail about the shape of the corneal surface and

the various means of measuring it. Keratoscopy and keratometry

formed a strong chapter in Abderhalden’s Handbuch. As contact

lenses became ubiquitous and their tting needed good information

of the corneal surface on which they rested and whose optical

properties they largely preempted, rapid and accurate measure-

ments of corneal curvature could be performed in the clinic

by cleverly designed electro-optical apparatuses, the subject of

continued attention and technical innovation (Fowler and Dave

1994). Polarization eects, which can be made visible, have been

ascribed to the cornea (Stanworth and Naylor 1950).

1.3.3 THE CRYSTALLINE LENS

e anterior and posterior surfaces of the crystalline lens are of

critical relevance in how the eye accommodates, that is, changes

focus under neural control by contraction of the ciliary muscle.

E.F. Fincham (1937a), in part using optical means, made the

major contribution to this topic in his monograph. It became

clear early in the optical modeling of the eye that the anterior

and posterior curvature of the lens could not fully account for its

total refractive power for a biologically realistic refractive index,

and giving the eye a solid interior core was not supported by

evidence. Hence the proposition that a remarkable proportion of

its total refractive power is provided by a refractive index gradient

had gained acceptance by the time Gullstrand wrote his 1911

appendix. More recent approaches show just how challenging a

topic this is (Campbell 1984, Pierscionek and Chan 1989).

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