Linux文件系统层次结构标准详解

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"Linux文件系统层次结构文档，版本0.65，由Binh Nguyen编写，日期2004年7月30日。该文档根据2004年1月29日发布的FSSTND v2.3最终版规定，详细阐述了Linux操作系统下文件和目录放置的要求和指南，并讨论了FSSTND如何提高应用、系统管理工具、开发工具和脚本的互操作性支持效率以及文档的一致性。" 在Linux操作系统中，文件系统层次结构（Filesystem Hierarchy Standard，简称FHS）是定义文件和目录的标准布局，旨在提供一种跨发行版的统一规则，以便于用户、管理员和开发者理解系统的组织结构。FHS的主要目标是促进不同Linux发行版之间的兼容性和一致性，简化系统管理，以及增强应用程序的可移植性。 1. **根目录** (`/`): 这是所有其他目录的起点，包含系统启动、运行时和核心系统文件。 2. **usr目录** (`/usr`): 存放非运行时必要的系统程序、数据文件和共享库。它分为几个子目录，如`/usr/bin`用于存放用户命令，`/usr/lib`存储库文件，`/usr/share`包含各种共享数据。 3. **var目录** (`/var`): 用于存放经常变化的数据，如日志文件（`/var/log`）、打印队列（`/var/spool`）和缓存（`/var/cache`）。 4. **etc目录** (`/etc`): 保存系统配置文件，包括服务配置、用户设置等。 5. **home目录** (`/home`): 用户个人工作目录的父目录，每个用户在此有自己的目录。 6. **bin目录** (`/bin`): 包含系统基本的可执行文件，这些是多用户环境下的必备程序。 7. **sbin目录** (`/sbin`): 存放系统管理命令，通常只对超级用户（root）可用。 8. **lib目录** (`/lib`): 存放系统启动和运行时所需的动态链接库，以及内核模块（`/lib/modules`）。 9. **dev目录** (`/dev`): 设备文件的集合，允许用户和应用程序直接与硬件设备交互。 10. **mnt目录** (`/mnt`): 临时挂载其他文件系统的通用位置。 11. **tmp目录** (`/tmp`): 用于存放临时文件，系统重启时会被清除。通过遵循FHS，Linux系统能够实现更好的组织和标准化，使得维护、升级和故障排查更为容易。同时，开发人员可以更轻松地为不同的Linux发行版编写兼容的软件，因为它们都遵循相同的文件系统布局。此外，FHS还强调了文档的重要性，以确保用户和管理员能获得清晰的操作指南。 FSSTND的实施和更新，如v2.3版本，反映了Linux社区对持续改进和保持系统一致性的承诺。随着时间的推移，这个标准也在不断演进，以适应新的技术和工作负载的需求。通过理解和遵循FHS，无论是系统管理员还是普通用户，都能更好地理解和利用Linux系统提供的功能。

PS/2 mouse connection (mice, keyboards).

/dev/lp0 (First printer port, LPT1)

First parallel port (printers, scanners, etc).

/dev/dsp (First audio device)

The name DSP comes from the term digital signal processor, a specialized processor chip optimized

for digital signal analysis. Sound cards may use a dedicated DSP chip, or may implement the

functions with a number of discrete devices. Other terms that may be used for this device are digitized

voice and PCM.

/dev/usb (USB Devices)

This subdirectory contains most of the USB device nodes. Device name allocations are fairly

simplistic so no elaboration is be necessary.

/dev/sda (C:\, SCSI device)

First SCSI device (HDD, Memory Sticks, external mass storage devices such as CD−ROM drives on

laptops, etc).

/dev/scd (D:\, SCSI CD−ROM device)

First SCSI CD−ROM device.

/dev/js0 (Standard gameport joystick)

First joystick device.

Devices are defined by type, such as 'block' or 'character', and 'major' and 'minor' number. The major number

is used to categorize a device and the minor number is used to identify a specific device type. For example, all

IDE device connected to the primary controller have a major number of 3. Master and slave devices, as well

as individual partitions are further defined by the use of minor numbers. These are the two numbers precede

the date in the following display:

# ls −l /dev/hd*

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 0 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 1 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda1

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 10 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda10

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 11 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda11

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 12 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda12

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 13 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda13

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 14 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda14

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 15 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda15

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 16 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda16

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 17 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda17

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 18 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda18

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 19 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda19

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 2 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda2

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 20 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda20

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 3 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda3

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 4 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda4

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 5 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda5

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 6 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda6

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 7 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda7

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 8 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda8

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 9 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hda9

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 64 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 65 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb1

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 74 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb10

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 75 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb11

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 76 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb12

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 77 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb13

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 78 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb14

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 79 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb15

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 13

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 80 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb16

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 81 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb17

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 82 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb18

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 83 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb19

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 66 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb2

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 84 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb20

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 67 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb3

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 68 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb4

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 69 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb5

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 70 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb6

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 71 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb7

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 72 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb8

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 73 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdb9

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 22, 0 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdc

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 22, 64 Mar 15 2002 /dev/hdd

The major number for both hda and hdb devices is 3. Of course, the minor number changes for each specific

partition. The definition of each major number category can be examined by looking at the contents of the

/usr/src/linux/include/linux/major.h file. The devices.txt also documents major and minor numbers. It is

located in the /usr/src/linux/Documentation directory. This file defines the major numbers. Almost all files

devices are created by default at the install time. However, you can always create a device using the mknod

command or the MAKEDEV script which is located in the /dev directory itself. Devices can be created with

this utility by supplying the device to be created, the device type (block or character) and the major and minor

numbers. For example, let's say you have accidentally deleted /dev/ttyS0 (COM1 under Windows), it can be

recreated using the following command

# mknod ttyS0 c 4 64

For those of us who are rather lazy you can simply run the MAKEDEV script as such

# MAKEDEV *

which will create all devices known.

If is possible that /dev may also contain a MAKEDEV.local for the creation of any local device files.

In general and as required by the FSSTND, MAKEDEV will have provisions for creating any device that may

be found on the system, not just those that a particular implementation installs.

For those of you who are wondering why Linux is using such a primitive system to reference devices its

because we haven't been able to devise a sufficiently sophisticated mechanism which provides enough

advantages over the current system in order to achieve widespread adoption.

To date (as of kernel version 2.4), the best attempt has been made by Richard Gooch of the CSIRO. It's called

devfsd and has been a part of the kernel for a number of years now. It has been sanctioned by the kernel

developers and Linus himself and details of its implementation can be found at

/usr/src/linux/Documentation/filesystems/devfs/README. Below is an excerpt from this document.

Devfs is an alternative to "real" character and block special devices on your root filesystem. Kernel device

drivers can register devices by name rather than major and minor numbers. These devices will appear in devfs

automatically, with whatever default ownership and protection the driver specified. A daemon (devfsd) can be

used to override these defaults. Devfs has been in the kernel since 2.3.46.

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 14

NOTE that devfs is entirely optional. If you prefer the old disc−based device nodes, then simply leave

CONFIG_DEVFS_FS=n (the default). In this case, nothing will change. ALSO NOTE that if you do enable

devfs, the defaults are such that full compatibility is maintained with the old devices names.

There are two aspects to devfs: one is the underlying device namespace, which is a namespace just like any

mounted filesystem. The other aspect is the filesystem code which provides a view of the device namespace.

The reason I make a distinction is because devfs can be mounted many times, with each mount showing the

same device namespace. Changes made are global to all mounted devfs filesystems. Also, because the devfs

namespace exists without any devfs mounts, you can easily mount the root filesystem by referring to an entry

in the devfs namespace.

The cost of devfs is a small increase in kernel code size and memory usage. About 7 pages of code (some of

that in __init sections) and 72 bytes for each entry in the namespace. A modest system has only a couple of

hundred device entries, so this costs a few more pages. Compare this with the suggestion to put /dev on a

ramdisc.

On a typical machine, the cost is under 0.2 percent. On a modest system with 64 MBytes of RAM, the cost is

under 0.1 percent. The accusations of "bloatware" levelled at devfs are not justified.

As of kernel version 2.6, devfs has been marked obsolete and has now been replaced by udev. A system very

similar (at least from a the end user's point of view) to devfs but which works entirely in userspace. An

overview of udev can be found at

http://www.kroah.com/linux/talks/ols_2003_udev_paper/Reprint−Kroah−Hartman−OLS2003.pdf

1.6. /etc

This is the nerve center of your system, it contains all system related configuration files in here or in its

sub−directories. A "configuration file" is defined as a local file used to control the operation of a program; it

must be static and cannot be an executable binary. For this reason, it's a good idea to backup this directory

regularly. It will definitely save you a lot of re−configuration later if you re−install or lose your current

installation. Normally, no binaries should be or are located here.

/etc/X11/

This directory tree contains all the configuration files for the X Window System. Users should note

that many of the files located in this directory are actually symbolic links to the /usr/X11R6 directory

tree. Thus, the presence of these files in these locations can not be certain.

/etc/X11/XF86Config, /etc/X11/XF86Config−4

The 'X' configuration file. Most modern distributions possess hardware autodetection systems that

enable automatic creation of a valid file. Should autodetection fail a configuration file can also be

created manually provided that you have sufficient knowledge about your system. It would be

considered prudent not to attempt to type out a file from beginning to end. Rather, use common

configuration utilities such as xf86config, XF86Setup and xf86cfg to create a workable template.

Then, using suitable documentation commence optimization through intuition and/or trial and error.

Options that can be configured via this file include X modules to be loaded on startup, keyboard,

mouse, monitor and graphic chipset type. Often, commercial distributions will include their own X

configuration utilities such as XDrake on Mandrake and also Xconfiguration on Redhat. Below is a

sample X configuration file from the reference system

### BEGIN DEBCONF SECTION

# XF86Config−4 (XFree86 server configuration file) generated by dexconf, the

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 15

# Debian X Configuration tool, using values from the debconf database.

# Edit this file with caution, and see the XF86Config−4 manual page.

# (Type "man XF86Config−4" at the shell prompt.)

# If you want your changes to this file preserved by dexconf, only

# make changes

# before the "### BEGIN DEBCONF SECTION" line above, and/or after the

# "### END DEBCONF SECTION" line below.

# To change things within the debconf section, run the command:

# dpkg−reconfigure xserver−xfree86

# as root. Also see "How do I add custom sections to a dexconf−

# generated

# XF86Config or XF86Config−4 file?" in /usr/share/doc/xfree86−

# common/FAQ.gz.

Section "Files"

FontPath "unix/:7100"

# local font server

# if the local font server has problems,

# we can fall back on these

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/misc"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/100dpi/:unscaled"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/75dpi/:unscaled"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/Type1"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/Speedo"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/100dpi"

FontPath "/usr/lib/X11/fonts/75dpi"

EndSection

Section "Module"

Load "GLcore"

Load "bitmap"

Load "dbe"

Load "ddc"

Load "dri"

Load "extmod"

Load "freetype"

Load "glx"

Load "int10"

Load "pex5"

Load "record"

Load "speedo"

Load "type1"

Load "vbe"

Load "xie"

EndSection

Section "InputDevice"

Identifier "Generic Keyboard"

Driver "keyboard"

Option "CoreKeyboard"

Option "XkbRules" "xfree86"

Option "XkbModel" "pc104"

Option "XkbLayout" "us"

EndSection

Section "InputDevice"

Identifier "Configured Mouse"

Driver "mouse"

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Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 16

Option "CorePointer"

Option "Device" "/dev/psaux"

Option "Protocol" "NetMousePS/2"

Option "Emulate3Buttons" "true"

Option "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"

EndSection

Section "InputDevice"

Identifier "Generic Mouse"

Driver "mouse"

Option "SendCoreEvents" "true"

Option "Device" "/dev/input/mice"

Option "Protocol" "ImPS/2"

Option "Emulate3Buttons" "true"

Option "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"

EndSection

Section "Device"

Identifier "Generic Video Card"

Driver "nv"

# Option "UseFBDev" "true"

Option "UseFBDev" "false"

EndSection

Section "Monitor"

Identifier "Generic Monitor"

HorizSync 30−38

VertRefresh 43−95

Option "DPMS"

EndSection

Section "Screen"

Identifier "Default Screen"

Device "Generic Video Card"

Monitor "Generic Monitor"

DefaultDepth 16

SubSection "Display"

Depth 1

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 4

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 8

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 15

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 16

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

SubSection "Display"

Depth 24

Modes "800x600" "640x480"

EndSubSection

EndSection

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Chapter 1. Linux Filesystem Hierarchy 17

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