纳米CMOSΣ-Δ调制器在软件定义无线电中的应用

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"Nanometer CMOS Sigma-Delta Modulators for Software Defined Radio" 是一本专注于纳米级CMOS技术下的Σ-Δ调制器在软件定义无线电中的应用的专业书籍。由Alonso Morgado、Rocío del Río和José M. de la Rosa撰写，该书涵盖了当前流行的设计策略，特别是针对Σ-Δ模数转换器(ADC)的实现。 Σ-Δ ADC（Σ-Δ调制器）是一种高分辨率、低速但具有噪声整形特性的模数转换技术。在软件定义无线电（SDR）中，这种调制器扮演着至关重要的角色，因为它能够处理各种不同的无线通信标准和频率范围。SDR依赖于灵活的硬件和复杂的数字信号处理算法，而Σ-Δ ADC的高性能和低功耗特性使其成为SDR的理想选择。本书可能涉及的内容包括： 1. Σ-Δ调制原理：书中可能会详细介绍Σ-Δ调制的工作机制，包括一阶和二阶Σ-Δ调制器的基本结构，以及它们如何通过过采样和噪声整形来实现高分辨率转换。 2. 纳米CMOS工艺：随着集成电路尺寸的缩小，纳米CMOS工艺对于实现更高效、更小的Σ-Δ ADC至关重要。作者可能会讨论这些工艺对器件性能的影响，如电源电压降低、热噪声增加和寄生效应等。 3. 设计策略：书中可能涵盖优化Σ-Δ ADC性能的各种设计方法，如噪声优化、功耗管理、失调和增益误差校正等。 4. 实际应用：针对SDR的特殊需求，书中可能讨论了Σ-Δ ADC在不同无线通信标准（如4G、5G、Wi-Fi和蓝牙）中的应用实例。 5. 数字后处理：Σ-Δ ADC输出的数字信号通常需要经过数字滤波器进行处理，以恢复原始模拟信号。这部分可能会介绍不同的数字滤波器架构和实现方法。 6. 功耗与性能权衡：在SDR中，功耗和性能之间的平衡是关键。作者可能会探讨如何在满足系统性能需求的同时，尽可能降低功耗。 7. 实验与验证：书中可能包含实际电路设计和测试结果，以验证理论分析和仿真预测。 8. 最新技术趋势：作者可能会讨论Σ-Δ ADC在SDR领域的最新研究进展和未来发展方向。 "Nanometer CMOS Sigma-Delta Modulators for Software Defined Radio" 是一本深入探讨Σ-Δ ADC在现代无线通信系统，特别是软件定义无线电中的应用的专业书籍，适合电子工程师、研究人员和相关专业学生参考学习。

xviii List of Abbreviations

Vpd Differential peak-to-peak Voltage

Vpp Peak-to-peak Voltage

WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access

WiMAX Worldwide interoperability for Microwave Access

WLAN Wireless Local Area Network

WMAN Wireless Metropolitan Area Network

Chapter 1

Introduction

SINCE THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) AGE BEGAN AROUND

25 YEARS AGO with the commercialization of ﬁrst personal computers, a number

of digital electronic devices (audio/video players, cameras, cell phones, etc) have

transformed the lifestyle of billions of people all over the world. The majority of

these devices—empowered by microelectronic technology innovations—have been

gradually connected to the Internet, thus giving rise to what has been called the ﬁrst

wave of the digital revolution. In the ﬁrst decade of twenty-ﬁrst century, Internet-

based devices have experienced an explosive growth with the continuous increase of

both wired and wireless broadband access services, thus enabling the proliferation

of interactive social-networking activities, more and more multimedia contents, as

well as new personalized on-line experiences on a single mobile hand-held terminal.

All this has lead to the run up of the age of the second wave of the digital revolution

[Lim08].

This trendis driven by increasingly sophisticateduser demands, prompting mobile

terminals towards ubiquitous connectivity, with more and more capabilities, reduced

cost and increased battery duration. Moreover, it is expected that new generations

of wireless communication technologies will go beyond a simple linear extension

of the capabilities of previous ones, not only improving their performance but also

enabling the convergence with older standards. The goal is to provide an optimum

delivery via the most appropriate network available, allowing smoothly transitions

between different networks [Evan00, Hui03, Tach03, Deso06, Frat06, Stee07]. The

next generations of wireless handsets must therefore be able to communicate on

many radio systems, with different carrier frequencies, bandwidths, multiple access

techniques, duplex methods, number of user channels, modulation schemes, data

rates, etc [Rosa09].

Although the most advanced smart phones already support a large number of

standards and applications, the current addition mechanism of new operating modes

and services do not scale. Indeed, each new standard usually requires a dedicated

radio frequency (RF) and baseband chipset, which is assembled using ultra-dense

packaging techniques, so that the physical volume of every new mobile generation

either remains constant or even shrinks. Thus, today’s cellphones are marvels of

miniaturization but fundamentally, they are still just plain old radios [Rube07]. Even

A. Morgado et al., Nanometer CMOS Sigma-Delta Modulators for Software Deﬁned Radio, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-0037-0_1, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

2 1 Introduction

though this trend turns into a signiﬁcant increase in component count and bill of

materials (BoM), the ﬁnal product price can be kept or even reduced, partially thanks

to the huge number of terminals sold [Abid07, Gian09]. Indeed, the rate at which

new functionalities are introduced in a mobile terminal will soon exceed the rate of

miniaturization in packaging. Therefore, addressing this challenge implies redeﬁning

the concept of wireless hand-held terminals, evolving from a pure hardware-based

to a combination of hardware- and software-based radio [Abid07, Rube07, Gian09,

Kits09, Ru09]. As ﬁrst envisaged by Mitola [Mito95], an ideal software-deﬁned-

radio (SDR) should be a universal radio platform which can be programmed to steer

any band, tune a channel of any bandwidth, and receive any modulation, all with

reasonable constraints, while ensuring the required quality of service as well as

guaranteeing privacy and security [Abid07].

In addition to allowing mobile terminals to easily accommodate emerging stan-

dards via either software or ﬁrmware upgrade [Ru09], the implementation of the SDR

concept will enable the so-called cognitive radio (CR) paradigm [Mito95, Cabr06,

Rube07]. Essentially, CR-based technology enableswireless networksand hand-held

terminals to use the RF spectrum in a dynamic manner—instead of a ﬁxed manner as

it is used today. As a result, a more efﬁcient use of the licensed/unlicensed spectrum

is achieved, with reduced interferences and/or at a lower power consumption. In-

deed, in the near future, SDR-based mobile terminals implementing CR technology

will be capable of dynamically sensing their spectral environment and of exploit-

ing the captured information to change their transmission/reception parameters in

order to improve the communication link and to reduce the energy consumed on

the ﬂy [Rube07]. CR mobile phones must therefore be smart enough to incorpo-

rate cognitive (spectrum sensing) capabilities and ﬂexible enough to be dynamically

programmed according to the information obtained from their interaction with the

environment [Cabr06]. This approach is completely different from the ﬁxed spec-

trum assignment policy followed by today’s mobile telecom systems, in which a large

portion (around 85%) of the assigned radio spectrum is used sporadically while the

remaining bands are truly busy at any given time. It is important to mention here

that reducing power dissipation will also make the use of alternative energy sources

possible, thus making solar-cell powered cellphones a reality [Rube07]. By means

of embedding additional sensorial capabilities, mobile terminals could also act as

healthcare devices, making emergency calls in case they detect problems in the vital

signs of the user (patient). Moreover, mobile terminals including cognitive abilities

can be used in domotic applications, allowing users to remotely control their home

appliances, etc.

However, the current situation in most commercial smartcellphones is farfrom the

universal radio platform deﬁned by the CR/SDR paradigm, where the digitization

is close to the antenna and most of the processing is performed by a high-speed

general-purpose digital signal processor (DSP). As an illustration, Fig. 1.1 shows the

block diagram of an ideal SDR transceiver—as it was originally conceived by Mitola

[Mito95]—in which the RF signal coming in from the antenna is directly digitized by

an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Hence, many functions like frequency tuning

4 1 Introduction

depending on the required transmit/receive parameters [Crom09]. Such universal

SoC transceivers are well beyond the state-of-the-art performance. Indeed, most of

the reported CMOS multi-mode solutions focus on the selection of a few (two or

three) standards or operating modes having similar requirements [Ahol04, Jung04,

Dara05, Maed06, Muha06, Behz07, Lin09, Tenb08, Vass08], whereas very little

has been really done targeting a really programmable/adaptable analog/RF front-end

[Gian09].

In this scenario, this chapter provides an overview of wireless communica-

tion systems, their trends and challenges for the implementation of SDR-based

transceivers implemented in nanometer CMOS technologies. The chapter is orga-

nized as follows. Section 1.1 reviews the different standards and applications that

are expected to be covered by the next generation (4G) wireless networks. Sec-

tion 1.2 discusses different issues related to the design of multi-standard transceiver

architectures, their state-of-the-art topologies and the innovations required towards

real SDR-based solutions. Section 1.3 moves further down to the circuit level and

discusses different design issues of reconﬁgurable and adaptive building blocks

required for the implementation of analog baseband in multi-standard wireless re-

ceivers. Especial emphasis is put on the analog-to-digital converter—objective of this

book. Finally, Sect. 1.4 gives a survey of the state-of-the-art performance on recon-

ﬁgurable ADCs.

1.1 Overview of Wireless Standards and Mobile Systems

Although mobile communication is yet a relatively young technology in comparison

to other scientiﬁc and engineering achievements, its evolution has no precedents.

Today, mobile phones are the most used electronics devices in developed countries

and the number of mobile subscribers worldwide has grown over 100-fold in the last

ten years [Neuv04]. Such is the pervasiveness of mobile communication that it has

become a signiﬁcant contributor to gross national product in the majority of western

countries [Evan00], and it is indeed expected to experience the highest growth in the

information and communication sector, making ubiquitous communications a reality

[Tach03].

Only a few years ago, mobile phones were electronic systems with a single func-

tionality: voice transmission. These systems, based on analog modulation schemes

such as AMPS, were called ﬁrst-generation (1G) cellular or mobile phones. The

second generation (2G), based on digital modulation and mainly using the GSM

standard, increased their functionality in comparison to 1G enabling the trans-

mission of short message services (SMS), with data rates in the order of tens of

kilobits/second (kb/s). In the last few years, with the development of the third gener-

ation (3G) of cellular telecommunications, mobile phones have become multimedia

electronic devices, combining different functionalities, among others: digital video

camera, multimedia players, short-range connectivity (of up to 1 Mb/s using Blue-

tooth) to other electronic devices and broadband connectivity to the Internet with

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