TCP/IP详解卷一：协议、应用与实现

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《TCP/IP详解卷一英文版》是一本深入解析TCP/IP协议的经典著作，作者W. Richard Stevens以其详尽的讲解和丰富的实例，带领读者理解这个网络通信的基础架构。本书共分为两大部分：网络层协议和链路层协议。第一部分，第一章"Introduction"介绍了TCP/IP协议的基本概念，包括协议分层、互联网地址、域名系统（DNS）、封装与解封装、客户端-服务器模型、端口号、标准化过程和RFC（Request for Comments，技术报告文档）的重要性。章节详细地阐述了标准的简单服务，如网络的应用编程接口（API），以及如何搭建测试网络，以帮助读者从宏观层面了解TCP/IP的工作原理。第二章"Link Layer"深入到链路层，讨论了诸如以太网（Ethernet）和IEEE 802标准的封装、滑动窗口协议（SLIP）、压缩SLIP、点对点协议（PPP）等技术。此外，还讲解了MTU（最大传输单元）、路径MTU（用于处理不同链路的MTU差异）以及通过串口进行数据传输的吞吐量计算，这些内容对于理解底层网络通信至关重要。第三章"IP: Internet Protocol"专门探讨了互联网协议本身，包括IP头的结构、路由选择、子网寻址、子网掩码的作用、特殊地址的处理以及常用的配置命令（如ifconfig和netstat）的使用。此外，作者还展望了IP协议的未来发展趋势。第四章"ARP: Address Resolution Protocol"则聚焦于地址解析协议，解释了如何通过ARP解决网络设备之间的IP地址到硬件地址的映射问题，通过具体例子展示了协议的工作流程和缓存机制。《TCP/IP详解卷一英文版》不仅详细讲解了TCP/IP协议的核心原理，还涵盖了实际应用中的各种技术和工具，对于学习网络通信、网络管理员和开发人员来说，是一本不可或缺的参考书。无论是初学者还是经验丰富的专业人士，都能从中收获丰富的知识和实践经验。

Figure 1.3 Two networks connected with a router.

In the TCP/IP protocol suite the network layer, IP, provides an unreliable service. That is, it does its

best job of moving a packet from its source to its final destination, but there are no guarantees. TCP,

on the other hand, provides a reliable transport layer using the unreliable service of IP To provide this

service, TCP performs timeout and retransmission, sends and receives end-to-end acknowledgments,

and so on. The transport layer and the network layer have distinct responsibilities.

A router, by definition, has two or more network interface layers (since it connects two or more

networks). Any system with multiple interfaces is called multihomed. A host can also be multihomed

but unless it specifically forwards packets from one interface to another, it is not called a router. Also,

routers need not be special hardware boxes that only move packets around an internet. Most TCP/IP

implementations allow a multihomed host to act as a router also, but the host needs to be specifically

configured for this to happen. In this case we can call the system either a host (when an application

such as FTP or Telnet is being used) or a router (when it’s forwarding packets from one network to

another). We’ll use whichever term makes sense given the context.

One of the goals of an internet is to hide all the details of the physical layout of the internet from the

applications. Although this isn’t obvious from our two-network internet in Figure 1.3, the application

layers can’t care (and don’t care) that one host is on an Ethernet, the other on a token ring, with a

router between. There could be 20 routers between, with additional types of physical interconnections,

and the applications would run the same. This hiding of the details is what makes the concept of an

internet so powerful and useful.

Another way to connect networks is with a bridge. These connect networks at the link layer, while

routers connect networks at the network layer. Bridges makes multiple LANs appear to the upper

layers as a single LAN.

IP is the main protocol at the network layer. It is used by both TCP and UDP. Every piece of TCP and

UDP data that gets transferred around an internet goes through the IP layer at both end systems and at

every intermediate router. In Figure 1.4 we also show an application accessing IP directly. This is rare,

but possible. (Some older routing protocols were implemented this way. Also, it is possible to

experiment with new transport layer protocols using this feature.) Chapter 3 looks at IP, but we save

some of the details for later chapters where their discussion makes more sense. Chapters 9 and 10 look

at how IP performs routing.

ICMP is an adjunct to IP. It is used by the IP layer to exchange error messages and other vital

information with the IP layer in another host or router. Chapter 6 looks at ICMP in more detail.

Although ICMP is used primarily by IP, it is possible for an application to also access it. Indeed we’ll

see that two popular diagnostic tools, Ping and Traceroute (Chapters 7 and 8), both use ICMP.

IGMP is the Internet Group Management Protocol. It is used with multicasting: sending a UDP

datagram to multiple hosts. We describe the general properties of broadcasting (sending a UDP

datagram to every host on a specified network) and multicasting in Chapter 12, and then describe

IGMP itself in Chapter 13.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) and RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) are specialized

protocols used only with certain types of network interfaces (such as Ethernet and token ring) to

convert between the addresses used by the IP layer and the addresses used by the network interface.

We examine these protocols in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively.

1.4 Internet Addresses

Every interface on an internet must have a unique Internet address (also called an IP address). These

addresses are 32-bit numbers. Instead of using a flat address space such as 1, 2, 3, and so on, there is a

structure to Internet addresses. Figure 1.5 shows the five different classes of Internet addresses.

These 32-bit addresses are normally written as four decimal numbers, one for each byte of the address.

This is called dotted-decimal notation. For example, the class B address of the author’s primary system

is 140.252.13.33.

The easiest way to differentiate between the different classes of addresses is to look at the first number

of a dotted-decimal address. Figure 1.6 shows the different classes, with the first number in boldface.

Figure 1.5 The five different classes of Internet addresses.

Class Range

A 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255

B 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255

C 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255

D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

E 240.0.0.0 to 247.255.255.255

Figure 1.6 Ranges for different classes of IP addresses.

It is worth reiterating that a multihomed host will have multiple IP addresses: one per interface.

Since every interface on an internet must have a unique IP address, there must be one central authority

for allocating these addresses for networks connected to the worldwide Internet. That authority is the

Internet Network Information Center, called the InterNIC. The InterNIC assigns only network IDs.

The assignment of host IDs is up to the system administrator.

Registration services for the Internet (IP addresses and DNS domain names) used to be handled by the NIC, at

nic.ddn.mil. On April 1, 1993, the InterNIC was created. Now the NIC handles these requests only for the Defense

Data Network (DDN). All other Internet users now use the InterNIC registration services, at rs.internic.net.

There are actually three parts to the InterNIC: registration services (rs.internic.net), directory and database services

(ds.internic.net), and information services (is.internic.net). See Exercise 1.8 for additional information on

the InterNIC.

There are three types of IP addresses: unicast (destined for a single host), broadcast (destined for all

hosts on a given network), and multicast (destined for a set of hosts that belong to a multicast group).

Chapters 12 and 13 look at broadcasting and multicasting in more detail.

In Section 3.4 we’ll extend our description of IP addresses to include subnetting, after describing IP

routing. Figure 3.9 shows the special case IP addresses: host IDs and network IDs of all zero bits or all

one bits.

1.5 The Domain Name System

Although the network interfaces on a host, and therefore the host itself, are known by IP addresses,

humans work best using the name of a host. In the TCP/IP world the Domain Name System (DNS) is a

distributed database that provides the mapping between IP addresses and hostnames. Chapter 14 looks

into the DNS in detail.

For now we must be aware that any application can call a standard library function to look up the IP

address (or addresses) corresponding to a given hostname. Similarly a function is provided to do the

reverse lookup-given an IP address, look up the corresponding hostname.

Most applications that take a hostname as an argument also take an IP address. When we use the

Telnet client in Chapter 4, for example, one time we specify a host-name and another time we specify

an IP address.

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