集体智慧应用：从网络创新到团队智能

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"On Collective Intelligence.pdf" 是一本关于集体智慧的高清英文版书籍，具有详细的目录，探讨了如何在基于网络的创新网络中构建参与者声誉、如何利用群体智慧进行价值创造，以及开放科学如何从开放创新和Web 2.0中获益。书中涉及的主题包括社交网络系统对研究人员出版活动的分析、利用群智能将客户融入产品创新、社会书签系统的标签模仿与质量、引导到folksonomies的集体智慧、通过集体智慧改进Web 2.0系统的创新能力、团队中的集体智慧以及开发交互式记忆的实用方法、需求语言、通过内容聚类添加到语义社交网络分析的分类法，以及在电子时尚市场中如何通过客户参与来减少新产品开发的时间。该书属于"Advances in Intelligent and Soft Computing"系列，由Janusz Kacprzyk教授担任主编，涵盖了一系列相关领域的前沿研究，如模糊信息与工程、计算智能在信息安全中的应用、互联网技术的发展与应用、计算机在医疗活动中的应用，以及数字化企业技术的国际会议论文等。这些内容反映了群体智慧如何与人工智能、软计算、数据挖掘、社交网络分析、开放科学和产品创新等多个领域相互交织，展示了群体智慧在当今信息时代的重要性和影响力。书中的部分章节深入探讨了如何利用集体智慧来提高新产品的研发效率，特别是在电子时尚市场中，强调了顾客在产品创新过程中的参与度。同时，书中还讨论了如何通过社会网络分析来理解研究人员的出版活动，以及如何利用群智能算法来更有效地整合客户的需求和反馈，以提升产品的质量和创新性。此外，书中还提出了对Web 2.0服务网络的开放性进行测量和分析的方法，以增强整个系统的创新能力，并通过集体智慧开发出更高效的团队协作和交互式记忆系统。这本书为读者提供了一个全面的视角，揭示了如何在不同背景下利用集体智慧来推动创新和价值创造，无论是通过社交媒体、网络协作还是智能算法，都是为了更好地理解和利用群体智慧的力量。对于那些对群体行为、网络科学、信息管理和创新策略感兴趣的读者，这是一本极富洞察力的参考资料。

6 M. McGovern

Several distinct types of crisis that can be variously interlinked are recognised in

international economics. A convenient reference is the development [15, 16] which

combines bank, exchange rate, default and industry crises in an interlinked group, as

reproduced below.

Fig. 1. Vicious Circles in Twin and Triple Crises [15 Fig 22-23]

Single or successively building twin and triple crises are taken as impacting on real

output (centred on product production and consumption), with further feedbacks pos-

sible from the real economy to the finance, monetary and government sectors.

The elements in the schema are these:

─ Banks and a financial system, termed Finance, F say

─ A set of currencies variously exchangeable, Monies M

─ Governments, G, with their policies and influences “for the collective good”

─ Product producers and consumers, as industries I

The whole, which might be termed “FIGM”, is a figment of their “informed” imagi-

nations. FIGM relays a pattern

. It is an indeterminate complex of four distinct ele-

ments variously interrelating.

However, not only are these elements interlinked.

Each element is itself complex having some internal structure and arrangements that

condition conduct and may (or may not) allow for internal resolutions of problems.

Any exercises in unintelligence that may lead to crisis can then be seen as potentially

Note that while the pattern is based around four elements there are omitted direct considera-

tions, such as of balance of payments imbalances.

Note that external (to the focal nation) linkages provided by currency, financing, trade and

other flows from the rest of the world are not shown. Alternately, the schema may be taken

to represent a global situation so the model may be assumed closed externally, but each item

(node and flow) is then internally heterogeneous in marked and significant ways.

On Collective Unintelligence 7

internal to some element, linked externally in some way to another somehow-like

element, and/or interlinked generally with several or all other elements.

Facing the question “How is sense to be made of such confusion - or richness of

possibilities?” we make assumptions, including of significant associations and of

some sequencing via time or cumulative effect. That is, we build a model. A cadence

of interactions or flows is imposed across the complex to produce some applicable

order.

We then assume that a preferred cadence is relevant and somehow meaning-

ful, or at least sometimes (or at some time) plausible.

Much debate centres on the

superiority of this cadence or that, both technically and as deemed relevant.

It may surprise but the idea of “crisis” is little considered in “International Eco-

nomics” texts.

It was interesting recently to find how effective introducing “crisis”

at the beginning of semester and paralleling it with standard expositions of theory

appeared to be in developing student understanding. This mirrors educational experi-

ences in international business and industry analysis where reflections on the tensions

between alternate perceptions aided learning. Each of these three areas has a distinc-

tive yet complementary focus and position. Together they can provide richer insights

into international and national business situations. Speculatively then, what comple-

mentary insights might advance collective intelligence?

4 A Vector Example

Following a short recap of vector basics, triple products are illustratively explored to

demonstrate various generated outputs. There appears to be some potential to aid

understanding of collective situations in economics and intelligence. The develop-

ment is preliminary and suggestive so comments are very welcome.

A vector is geometrically a directed line. It can be specified by a length and direc-

tion or by a joining of two ordered points. Metaphorically, a base point can be seen as

successively projected across space to a destination. Alternately, a directed line is

bounded and positioned. Additional assumptions allow “the line” to be “moved

across space” if suitable parallels are maintained.

Consider now three vectors f, g and m. Assume that they cross at some common

point O. The vectors can be seen as the distinct projections from some common point

O of collocated entities F, G, and M. Two types of vector products can be formed:

─ Scalar (also known as dot or inner, designated by “.”) product. One vector is

projected on the other with a scalar (or non directed) output. A vector property

disappears and a single, unpositioned number remains.

─ Vector (cross or outer, designated by “x”) product. One vector is combined

with another with a non-coplanar vector output. The output is in a different di-

mension.

This is essentially the line of development of Cournot and others who build from a sequence

of propositions and inferences to suggest possible configurations and inferred conclusions.

For example, currency crises since 1970 have been classed as four generations, with each

reflecting a different configuration within Fig 1.

Anecdotally, only one of eight advanced undergraduate texts scanned included explicit dis-

cussions of “crisis” or “currency crisis”

8 M. McGovern

With three vectors, compound products are possible. The scalar triple product is of

the form f.gxm while the vector is of the form fxgxm. The former has a single nu-

merical or scalar output (equal to the volume of a parallelepiped built on the three

vectors) while the latter has a vector output (in the plane of the two vectors first

crossed). Both products synthesise three “distinct elements” into a single or a set of

dimensionally different products. The scalar triple product is illustrated in Figure 2.

As an illustrative application, this product can be seen as an indicator of credit avail-

able at some time C

Credit is built on projections adopted by financial, governmental

and monetary entities. F, G and M together project C.

The point in using vectors and their compound products here is that three separate

entities taken “together” (specifically at the same point O) can produce (via product

operations) a collective outcome which is infeasible if any one was absent or not “co-

operative”. Not only does a vector project a point across space, three vectors can

alternately project the value of a subtended volume and an output vector which is a

linear combination of the first crossed pair (despite the generative presence of the

third non-coplanar vector). In both cases, the output is dimensionally different to the

basis set. The scalar triple product lacks any spatial dimension while the vector triple

product lacks any unique dimensional attributes of the procedurally-third vector.

These are intriguing outcomes for well-ordered associations of three elements.

Fig. 2. Scalar triple product with product value projected as a parallelepiped volume

The elements have distinctive contributions and are thus of value and necessary

presence but they are not equi-valent. This unequal valency

is lost in the collective

scalar outcome so some “exogenous” allocation or distribution schema will be

needed. In economies this is often couched in custom or culture or concepts such as

“a fair go”. The area may be one of societal accord or discord.

Speculatively, does a triple product qualify as an expression of intelligence?

─ Both definitional requirements of Pfeifer and Scheier appear met, superficially

at least, if we accept dimensional change (which is a change in collective quality

when the set is combined according to the rules) as a behavioural outcome.

Considerations of the vector triple product are left to another place.

Literally, “strength” in some situation of combination. This is interpretable as differing abil-

ity to contribute or power of contribution. Note that there are both quantitative and qualita-

tive components of strength.

On Collective Unintelligence 9

─ The suggested working definition is two-parts met but “successfully” needs elu-

cidation. If, for example, the goals of the vectors or of those cojoining them in-

cluded having a basis for a volume of a certain size, then the scalar triple prod-

uct might indeed be adjudged not only “successful” but “intelligent”.

Vectors are, of course, assumed to be non-sentient entities yet a case could be built

that there is or may be intelligence in their triple products. Alternately, perhaps it is

not the vectors but the product processes that instills “intelligence”? Is it Nature (of

the vectors) or Nurture (via the product environment) or both that yields the outcome

adjudged as intelligent – or is the whole situation somehow misspecified? More

broadly is there an inference of intelligence by the observer or is the product as an

output of human thought an artefact with intelligence

embedded. If a triple product is

an invention of imagination, did the imagination embed or uncover intelligence?

Such questions may lead in many and potentially constructive directions.

Applying such considerations to issues of crisis, a “crisis event” can be seen as a

situation when projections by parties based on their expectations are not realized in

practice (ie, with the passing of time or influential events). The panel in Fig 3 illus-

trates an hypothetical credit crisis where expected credit C

= 37 is reduced in an F

“meltdown” to C

=23

followed by an increased projection by G to rebuild credit C

=36.8, ie to near C

. Government “projects 80% more” to offset the “75% lesser

projection” by finance and the associated 38% drop in Credit available.

This illus-

trates the Keynesian liquidity trap and the governmental response which is ideally

short term until the projection f of Finance F recovers. That is, credit on issue is

maintained by changing the contributions of the elemental parties in offsetting ways.

37 23 36.8

Stages: Pre-crisis f shrinks nonuniformly g grows 80%

Fig. 3. Initial situation, crisis and response: an illustration of “Credit” differently composed

The schema can also be applied to intelligence if the vectors reflected “assessed in-

telligence”.

Each of three parties (or three parts of one party) is set against the three

dimensions of some definitional basis, such as those earlier mentioned. For some

reason the scalar value of f is assessed “downwards”, perhaps as a result of some noted

unintelligence and/or “meltdown”. Within-group compensation is through a greater

Monetary parties M are assumed to remain unchanged for ease of exposition. Note also that

government G is assumed to act directly without involving finance F. To the extent that G

borrows via F, g as projected (but not as obligated) will be reduced and f increased.

Presuming some suitable basis, means of measurement and units of measure.

10 M. McGovern

reliance on g to maintain the value of the collective product, a reliance that could lead

to further crises (Figure 1).

It is an open question whether the collective credit or intelligence C is sustainable

or apposite to the situation faced, or whether a fresh start should be made. So far, a

“same-as-was-usual” ploy has been the favoured response for both the collective

credit and unintelligence problems of the global financial crisis. However, history

indicates a marked and lasting reduction in credits and debits along with insolvencies

at some stage in any true recovery, a repositioning of ideas and attitudes and new

judgments of “creditworthiness “ and “intelligence”.

5 Conclusion

The approach of Hegel is commonly cast in terms such as “Thesis, Antithesis and

Synthesis”. Some identified “thing”

is associated with a different one resulting in

some new thing. Often the preference is to choose “the competing opposite” as the

antithesis but the method is wider. One or more “complementary differents” may be

used as in the vector example. The process whereby synthesis is achieved is aufhe-

ben,

a term little used or, arguably, understood in English.

Two examples illustrate something of the many usages, and some of the potential

problems if “unintelligence” were to be used simply as a competitive antithesis:

─ The arguments of Marx and others cast a thesis (Labour, a projection of direct

human effort) and antithesis (Kapital, an alternate projection) in competitive op-

position, despite their mutual interdependence in production, consumption and

societies. The posited struggle between them has coloured much history, and

for the revolutionary aufheben became a process of achieving dominance given

competing interests or theses.

─ Bernanke demonstrates an allegiance to a thesis of rationality (preferencing a

particular projection of analytical thinking) and a discounting of “irrationality”

(including of such things as opportunism). He and other current (but not some

past) central bankers profess an ongoing commitment to monetary rules to

change behavior, “intelligent” behavior in the sense of Pfeifer and Scheier.

Whether such commitments are sufficient to the tasks at hand or a source of col-

lective unintelligence is a point of current debate.

Whatever the merits of chosen ideas, practical implementations can demonstrate

much collective unintelligence. Interpretation of influences as competing opposites is

but one interpretation, one of arguments in an idiomatically two-vector scalar product

tradition. Using triple products could enrich our dialogues and representations.

─ Production could become the product of land, labour and capital variously com-

bined “co-operatively” to yield scalar and vector product outcomes.

Such as an entity, attribute, position or projection, for example.

Aufheben is a rich word with a range of interpretations. Briefly, it contains the idea of build-

ing up while breaking down (as in Schumpter’s “creative destruction”), the idea of maintain-

ing some things while changing others (as evident in the “diversity-compliance tradeoff”

casting of intelligence by Pfeifer and Scheier), and the idea of opposition and differences to

be resolved. The concept deserves renewed attention.

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