实时渲染：游戏开发引擎的核心技术指南

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《实时渲染：第三版》是一本专为游戏开发工程师编写的权威指南，由Tomas Akenine-Möller、Eric Haines和Naty Hoffman合著，由AK Peters Ltd.出版，并隶属于CRC Press和Taylor & Francis Group。这本书聚焦于游戏图形图像领域中的关键技术——实时渲染，对于理解游戏中的视觉表现至关重要。实时渲染（Real-Time Rendering）是指在计算机图形学中，按照预定的时间间隔连续生成图像的过程，这对于现代游戏设计而言是不可或缺的组成部分。它涉及到一系列复杂的算法和技术，如光照计算、纹理映射、阴影贴图、几何着色、物理模拟等，这些都旨在创造逼真且流畅的游戏体验。书中详细介绍了实时渲染的各个方面，从基础概念到高级技术，包括但不限于： 1. **渲染管线**：解释了图形渲染过程的各个环节，包括顶点处理、片段处理、光栅化和最终呈现，让读者理解整个画面是如何从像素级别构建出来的。 2. **光照与阴影**：深入探讨各种光照模型（如Phong、Gouraud、全局光照），以及如何通过动态阴影技术提升场景的真实感。 3. **纹理与材质**：介绍不同类型的纹理贴图，以及如何创建和应用它们来增强游戏对象的细节和质感。 4. **几何优化**：讨论如何通过减少多边形数量、优化数据结构和利用硬件加速来提高渲染效率。 5. **碰撞检测与物理模拟**：在实时渲染中，碰撞检测是交互的重要部分，书中会涉及实时碰撞检测算法和简单的物理引擎实现。 6. **性能优化**：提供实用的策略和工具，帮助开发者理解和解决实时渲染中的瓶颈问题，确保游戏在各种设备上都能保持流畅运行。 7. **最新技术和趋势**：鉴于技术的快速发展，书中也会关注当前实时渲染领域的前沿技术，如实时光线追踪、GPU编程和硬件加速渲染器的利用。《实时渲染：第三版》不仅是游戏开发者的实用参考书，也适合对计算机图形学和游戏引擎技术感兴趣的读者深入了解这一领域的核心知识。它不仅提供了理论框架，还包含了许多实践案例和示例代码，有助于读者将理论转化为实际项目中的技能。这是一本不可多得的游戏开发教育资源。

Preface xv

Christer Ericson, Michael Gleicher, Manny Ko, Wallace Lages, Thomas

Larsson, Gr´egory Massal, Ville Miettinen, Mike Ramsey, Scott Schaefer,

Vincent Scheib, Peter Shirley, K.R. Subramanian, Mauricio Vives, and

Hector Yee.

We also had a number of reviewers help us on speciﬁc sections. Our

thanks go out to Matt Bronder, Christine DeNezza, Frank Fox, Jon Hassel-

gren, Pete Isensee, Andrew Lauritzen, Morgan McGuire, Jacob Munkberg,

Manuel M. Oliveira, Aurelio Reis, Peter-Pike Sloan, Jim Tilander, and

Scott Whitman.

We particularly thank Rex Crowle, Kareem Ettouney, and Francis Pang

from Media Molecule for their considerable help in providing fantastic im-

agery and layout concepts for the cover design.

Many people helped us out in other ways, such as answering ques-

tions and providing screenshots. Many gave signiﬁcant amounts of time

and eﬀort, for which we thank you. Listed alphabetically: Paulo Abreu,

Timo Aila, Johan Andersson, Andreas Bærentzen, Louis Bavoil, Jim Blinn,

Jaime Borasi, Per Christensen, Patrick Conran, Rob Cook, Erwin Coumans,

Leo Cubbin, Richard Daniels, Mark DeLoura, Tony DeRose, Andreas

Dietrich, Michael Dougherty, Bryan Dudash, Alex Evans, Cass Everitt,

Randy Fernando, Jim Ferwerda, Chris Ford, Tom Forsyth, Sam Glassen-

berg, Robin Green, Ned Greene, Larry Gritz, Joakim Grundwall, Mark

Harris, Ted Himlan, Jack Hoxley, John “Spike” Hughes, Ladislav

Kavan, Alicia Kim, Gary King, Chris Lambert, Jeﬀ Lander, Daniel Leaver,

Eric Lengyel, Jennifer Liu, Brandon Lloyd, Charles Loop, David Luebke,

Jonathan Ma¨ım, Jason Mitchell, Martin Mittring, Nathan Monteleone,

Gabe Newell, Hubert Nguyen, Petri Nordlund, Mike Pan, Ivan Pedersen,

Matt Pharr, Fabio Policarpo, Aras Pranckeviˇcius, Siobhan Reddy, Dirk

Reiners, Christof Rezk-Salama Eric Risser, Marcus Roth, Holly Rushmeier,

Elan Ruskin, Marco Salvi, Daniel Scherzer, Kyle Shubel, Philipp Slusallek,

Torb j¨orn S¨oderman, Tim Sweeney, Ben Trumbore, Michal Valient, Mark

Valledor, Carsten Wenzel, Steve Westin, Chris Wyman, Cem Yuksel, Billy

Zelsnack, Fan Zhang, and Renaldas Zioma.

We also thank many others who responded to our queries on public

forums such as GD Algorithms. Readers who took the time to send us

corrections have also been a great help. It is this supportive attitude that

is one of the pleasures of working in this ﬁeld.

As we have come to expect, the cheerful competence of the people at

A K Peters made the publishing part of the process much easier. For this

wonderful support, we thank you all.

On a personal note, Tomas would like to thank his son Felix and daugh-

ter Elina for making him understand (again) just how fun it can be to play

computer games (on the Wii), instead of just looking at the graphics, and

needless to say, his beautiful wife Eva. . .

xvi Preface

Eric would also like to thank his sons Ryan and Evan for their tireless

eﬀorts in ﬁnding cool game demos and screenshots, and his wife Cathy for

helping him survive it all.

Naty would like to thank his daughter Karen and son Daniel for their

forbearance when writing took precedence over piggyback rides, and his

wife Dorit for her constant encouragement and support.

Tomas Akenine-M¨oller

Eric Haines

Naty Hoﬀman

March 2008

Acknowledgements for the Second Edition

One of the most agreeable aspects of writing this second edition has been

working with people and receiving their help. Despite their own press-

ing deadlines and concerns, many people gave us signiﬁcant amounts of

their time to improve this book. We would particularly like to thank

the major reviewers. They are, listed alphabetically: Michael Abrash,

Ian Ashdown, Ulf Assarsson, Chris Brennan, S´ebastien Domin´e, David

Eberly, Cass Everitt, Tommy Fortes, Evan Hart, Greg James, Jan Kautz,

Alexander Keller, Mark Kilgard, Adam Lake, Paul Lalonde, Thomas

Larsson, Dean Macri, Carl Marshall, Jason L. Mitchell, Kasper Høy Nielsen,

Jon Paul Schelter, Jacob Str¨om, Nick Triantos, Joe Warren, Michael

Wimmer, and Peter Wonka. Of these, we wish to single out Cass Everitt

at NVIDIA and Jason L. Mitchell at ATI Technologies for spending large

amounts of time and eﬀort in getting us the resources we needed. Our

thanks also go out to Wolfgang Engel for freely sharing the contents of

his upcoming book, ShaderX [306], so that we could make this edition as

current as possible.

From discussing their work with us, to providing images or other re-

sources, to writing reviews of sections of the book, many others helped

in creating this edition. They all have our gratitude. These people in-

clude: Jason Ang, Haim Barad, Jules Bloomenthal, Jonathan Blow, Chas.

Boyd, John Brooks, Cem Cebenoyan, Per Christensen, Hamilton Chu,

Michael Cohen, Daniel Cohen-Or, Matt Craighead, Paul Debevec, Joe

Demers, Walt Donovan, Howard Dortch, Mark Duchaineau, Phil Dutr´e,

Dave Eberle, Gerald Farin, Simon Fenney, Randy Fernando, Jim Ferwerda,

Nickson Fong, Tom Forsyth, Piero Foscari, Laura Fryer, Markus Giegl,

Peter Glaskowsky, Andrew Glassner, Amy Gooch, Bruce Gooch, Simon

Green, Ned Greene, Larry Gritz, Joakim Grundwall, Juan Guardado, Pat

Hanrahan, Mark Harris, Michael Herf, Carsten Hess, Rich Hilmer, Kenneth

Hoﬀ III, Naty Hoﬀman, Nick Holliman, Hugues Hoppe, Heather Horne,

Tom Hubina, Richard Huddy, Adam James, Kaveh Kardan, Paul Keller,

Preface xvii

David Kirk, Alex Klimovitski, Jason Knipe, Jeﬀ Lander, Marc Levoy,

J.P. Lewis, Ming Lin, Adrian Lopez, Michael McCool, Doug McNabb,

Stan Melax, Ville Miettinen, Kenny Mitchell, Steve Morein, Henry More-

ton, Jerris Mungai, Jim Napier, George Ngo, Hubert Nguyen, Tito Pag´an,

J¨org Peters, Tom Porter, Emil Praun, Kekoa Proudfoot, Bernd Raabe,

Ravi Ramamoorthi, Ashutosh Rege, Szymon Rusinkiewicz, Carlo S´equin,

Chris Seitz, Jonathan Shade, Brian Smits, John Spitzer, Wolfgang Straßer,

Wolfgang St¨urzlinger, Philip Taylor, Pierre Terdiman, Nicolas Thibieroz,

Jack Tumblin, Fredrik Ulfves, Thatcher Ulrich, Steve Upstill, Alex Vlachos,

Ingo Wald, Ben Watson, Steve Westin, Dan Wexler, Matthias Wloka, Peter

Woytiuk, David Wu, Garrett Young, Borut Zalik, Harold Zatz, Hansong

Zhang, and Denis Zorin. We also wish to thank the journal ACM Transac-

tions on Graphics for continuing to provide a mirror website for this book.

Alice and Klaus Peters, our production manager Ariel Jaﬀee, our editor

Heather Holcombe, our copyeditor Michelle M. Richards, and the rest of

the staﬀ at A K Peters have done a wonderful job making this book the

best possible. Our thanks to all of you.

Finally, and most importantly, our deepest thanks go to our families for

giving us the huge amounts of quiet time we have needed to complete this

edition. Honestly, we never thought it would take this long!

Tomas Akenine-M¨oller

Eric Haines

May 2002

Acknowledgements for the First Edition

Many people helped in making this book. Some of the greatest contribu-

tions were made by those who reviewed parts of it. The reviewers will-

ingly gave the beneﬁt of their expertise, helping to signiﬁcantly improve

both content and style. We wish to thank (in alphabetical order) Thomas

Barregren, Michael Cohen, Walt Donovan, Angus Dorbie, Michael Gar-

land, Stefan Gottschalk, Ned Greene, Ming C. Lin, Jason L. Mitchell, Liang

Peng, Keith Rule, Ken Shoemake, John Stone, Phil Taylor, Ben Trumbore,

Jorrit Tyberghein, and Nick Wilt. We cannot thank you enough.

Many other people contributed their time and labor to this project.

Some let us use images, others provided models, still others pointed out

important resources or connected us with people who could help. In addi-

tion to the people listed above, we wish to acknowledge the help of Tony

Barkans, Daniel Baum, Nelson Beebe, Curtis Beeson, Tor Berg, David

Blythe, Chas. Boyd, Don Brittain, Ian Bullard, Javier Castellar, Satyan

Coorg, Jason Della Rocca, Paul Diefenbach, Alyssa Donovan, Dave Eberly,

Kells Elmquist, Stuart Feldman, Fred Fisher, Tom Forsyth, Marty Franz,

Thomas Funkhouser, Andrew Glassner, Bruce Gooch, Larry Gritz, Robert

Chapter 1

Introduction

Real-time rendering is concerned with making images rapidly on the com-

puter. It is the most highly interactive area of computer graphics. An

image appears on the screen, the viewer acts or reacts, and this feedback

aﬀects what is generated next. This cycle of reaction and rendering hap-

pens at a rapid enough rate that the viewer does not see individual images,

but rather becomes immersed in a dynamic process.

The rate at which images are displayed is measured in frames per sec-

ond (fps) or Hertz (Hz). At one frame per second, there is little sense of

interactivity; the user is painfully aware of the arrival of each new image.

At around 6 fps, a sense of interactivity starts to grow. An application

displaying at 15 fps is certainly real-time; the user focuses on action and

reaction. There is a useful limit, however. From about 72 fps and up,

diﬀerences in the display rate are eﬀectively undetectable.

Watching images ﬂicker by at 60 fps might be acceptable, but an even

higher rate is important for minimizing response time. As little as 15 mil-

liseconds of temporal delay can slow and interfere with interaction [1329].

There is more to real-time rendering than interactivity. If speed was the

only criterion, any application that rapidly responded to user commands

and drew anything on the screen would qualify. Rendering in real-time

normally means three-dimensional rendering.

Interactivity and some sense of connection to three-dimensional space

are suﬃcient conditions for real-time rendering, but a third element has

become a part of its deﬁnition: graphics acceleration hardware. While

hardware dedicated to three-dimensional graphics has been available on

professional workstations for many years, it is only relatively recently that

the use of such accelerators at the consumer level has become possible.

Many consider the introduction of the 3Dfx Voodoo 1 in 1996 the real

beginning of this era [297]. With the recent rapid advances in this market,

add-on three-dimensional graphics accelerators are as standard for home

computers as a pair of speakers. While it is not absolutely required for real-

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