NASA2010年对航空学的贡献： Volume1 - AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES, PROPULSION, CONTROLS

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"NASA's Contributions to Aeronautics.pdf" 这篇文档是NASA（美国国家航空航天局）在2010年发布的一份关于其在航空领域贡献的报告。报告分为四大部分：空气动力学、结构、推进系统和控制技术，由Dr. Richard P. Hallion编辑。这份报告详细阐述了NASA在这些关键领域的研究成果和对全球航空业的深远影响。在空气动力学方面，NASA长期以来一直走在技术创新的前沿，通过复杂的计算机模拟和风洞试验，改进了飞行器的气动性能，减少了阻力，提高了燃油效率，并且对飞机的稳定性与操控性进行了深入研究。这些工作不仅推动了商业航空的发展，也对军事飞行器的设计产生了重要影响。例如，NASA的研究可能涉及超音速飞行、低阻力亚音速飞行以及复杂气象条件下的飞行特性。在结构部分，NASA的贡献包括了材料科学的进步，如轻质复合材料的开发，这大大减轻了飞机的重量，增强了耐久性，同时也降低了维护成本。此外，他们还研究了结构健康监测系统，以实时监控飞行器的完整性，预防潜在的安全问题。在推进系统领域，NASA对涡扇发动机、火箭发动机和其他推进技术的改进，提升了飞行器的性能并减少了环境污染。他们可能探索了更高效、更环保的燃料，以及降低噪音和排放的技术，这对未来的绿色航空至关重要。控制技术部分，NASA的工作可能包括自动驾驶系统的研发，以及飞行控制系统的优化，使得飞行更加安全和精确。这些技术不仅改善了飞行安全性，也为无人飞行器的发展奠定了基础。此报告的出版旨在记录NASA的成就，同时也表明其持续对全球航空科技发展的承诺。尽管报告中的观点仅属于作者，不代表美国政府的官方立场，但它反映了NASA作为全球领先的航天机构，在推动航空技术进步方面的关键角色。报告的发布渠道广泛，包括线上销售、电话订购和邮寄，方便全球读者获取这一宝贵的科研资料。

Case 1 | Sweep and Swing: Reshaping the Wing for the Jet and Rocket Age

rights to the Burgess Company in the United States, which subsequently

produced two “Burgess-Dunne” seaplanes for the U.S. Navy. Lt. Holden

C. Richardson, subsequently one of the ﬁrst members of the NACA, had

urged their purchase “so that the[ir] advantages and limitations can be

thoroughly determined . . . as it appears to be only the beginning of an

important development in aeronautical design.”

That it was, though not in the fashion Richardson expected. The swept

wing remained an international staple of tailless self-stabilizing design,

typiﬁed in the interwar years by the various Westland Pterodactyl aircraft

Cheranovskiy, Waldo Waterman’s Arrowplane, and a series of increas-

ingly sophisticated sailplanes and powered aircraft designed by Germany’s

Alexander Lippisch. However, it would not become the “mainstream” ele-

ment of aircraft design its proponents hoped until applied to a very dif-

ferent purpose: reducing transonic aerodynamic effects.

The transonic

swept wing effectively increased a wing’s critical Mach number (the “drag

divergence Mach number”), delaying the onset of transonic drag rise and

enabling an airplane to ﬂy at higher transonic and supersonic speeds for

the same energy expenditure and drag penalty that a straight wing airplane

would expend and experience at much lower subsonic speeds.

In 1935, leading aerodynamicists gathered in Rome for the Volta

Congress on High Speeds in Aviation, held to coincide with the opening of

Italy’s impressive new Guidonia laboratory complex. There, a young German

ﬂuid dynamicist, Adolf Busemann, unveiled the concept of using the swept

wing as a means of attaining supersonic ﬂight.

In his presentation, he

2. Quoted in Roy A. Grossnick, et al., United States Naval Aviation 1910–1995 (Washington:

U.S. Navy, 1997), p. 15; Gordon Swanborough and Peter M. Bowers, United States Navy

Aircraft Since 1911 (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1968), p. 394.

3. Alexander Lippisch, “Recent Tests of Tailless Airplanes,” NACA TM-564 (1930), a NACA translation

of his article “Les nouveaux essays d’avions sans queue,” l’Aérophile (Feb. 1–15, 1930), pp. 35–39.

4. For Volta, see Theodore von Kármán and Lee Edson, The Wind and Beyond: Theodore von

Kármán, Pioneer in Aviation and Pathﬁnder in Space (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967), pp.

216–217, 221–222; Adolf Busemann, “Compressible Flow in the Thirties,” Annual Review of Fluid

Mechanics, vol. 3 (1971), pp. 6–11; Carlo Ferrari, “Recalling the Vth Volta Congress: High Speeds in

Aviation,” Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 28 (1996), pp. 1–9; Hans-Ulrich Meier, “Histo-

rischer Rückblick zur Entwicklung der Hochgeschwindigkeitsaerodynamik,” in H.-U. Meier, ed., Die

Pfeilﬂügelentwicklung in Deutschland bis 1945 (Bonn: Bernard & Graefe Verlag, 2006), pp. 16–36;

and Michael Eckert, The Dawn of Fluid Dynamics: A Discipline Between

Science and Technology (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag, 2006), pp. 228–231.

111

NASA’s Contributions to Aeronautics

demonstrated the circulation pattern around a swept wing that, essen-

tially, “fooled” it into “believing” it was ﬂying at lower velocities. As well,

he presented a sketch of an aircraft with such a “Pﬁelförmiges Tragwerk”

(“Arrow-Shaped Lifting Surface”), though one that had, by the standards

of subsequent design, very modest sweep and very high aspect ratio.

Theodore von Kármán recalled not quite two decades later that after-

ward, at the conference banquet, “General [Arturo] Crocco, the orga-

nizer of the congress and a man of far-reaching vision, went further while

doodling on the back of the menu card, drawing a plane with swept-

back wings and tail, and even swept propeller blades, laughingly calling

it ‘Busemann’s airplane.’”

Evidence exists that Crocco took the concept

beyond mere dinner conversation, for afterward, Guidonia researchers

evaluated a design blending modestly swept wings with a “push-pull”

twin-engine fuselage conﬁguration. However, Guidonia soon returned

to the more conventional, reﬂecting the Italian air ministry’s increas-

ing emphasis upon building a large and powerful air arm incorporating

already proven and dependable technology.

Delegates from other nations present at Busemann’s brieﬁng missed its

signiﬁcance altogether, perhaps because his gently swept conﬁguration—in

the era of the DC-2 and DC-3, which had pronounced leading edge taper—

looked far less radical than the theory and purpose behind it implied.

NACA Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory researchers had already

evaluated far more sharply swept planforms at Langley for a seminal

wing taper study the laboratory issued the next year.

Thus, at ﬁrst glance,

Busemann’s design certainly did not look like a shape that would trans-

form aviation from the ﬁrmly subsonic to the transonic, making possible

the potential of the jet engine, and the jet age (with its jet set) that followed.

5. Adolf Busemann, “Aerodynamische Auftrieb bei Überschallgeschwindigkeit,” Luftfahrtforschung,

vol. 12, No. 6 (Oct. 3, 1935), pp. 210–220, esp. Abb. 4–5 (Figures 4–5).

6. Theodore von Kármán, Aerodynamics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963 ed.), p. 133.

7. Ministero dell’Aeronautica, 1° Divisione, Sezione Aerodinamica Resultati di Esperienze (Rome:

Guidonia, 1936); the swept “double-ender” wind tunnel study (anticipating the layout of Dornier’s

Do 335 Pfeil [“Arrow”] of the late wartime years) was designated the J-10; its drawing is dated

March 7, 1936. I thank Professor Claudio Bruno of the Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapi-

enza”; and Brigadier General Marcello di Lauro and Lieutenant Colonel Massimiliano Barlattani

of the Stato Maggiore dell’Aeronautica Militare (SMdAM), Rome, for their very great assistance in

enabling me to examine this study at the Ufﬁcio Storico of the SMdAM in June 2009.

8. Raymond F. Anderson, “Determination of the Characteristics of Tapered Wings,” NACA Report

No. 572 (1936); see in particular Figs. 15 and 16, p. 11.

Case 1 | Sweep and Swing: Reshaping the Wing for the Jet and Rocket Age

Therefore, for the United States and most other nations, over the

next decade, the normative airplane remained one having straight (if

tapered) wings and piston propulsion. For Germany, however, the future

belonged to increasingly sharply swept and delta wings, and jet and

rocket propulsion as well. Within 5 years of the Volta conference, with

Europe engulfed in a new war, its engineers had already ﬂown their

ﬁrst jet and rocket-powered aircraft, had expanded beyond Busemann’s

initial conception to derive shapes more closely anticipating subsequent

high-speed aircraft and missile designs, and were busily testing models

of swept wing transonic airplanes and supersonic missiles. Lippisch’s

swept wing sailplanes had presaged a new Messerschmitt rocket-

propelled interceptor, the Me 163 Komet (“Comet”), and his broad, high

aspect ratio deltas had given way to a rounded triangular planform

that he envisioned as meeting the needs for transonic and supersonic

ﬂight. While many of these concepts by Lippisch and other German

designers were impracticable, or unrelated to Germany’s more imme-

diate military needs, others possessed signiﬁcant military or research

potential. Only ﬂawed decisions by the Third Reich’s own leadership

and the Allies’ overrunning of Germany would prevent them from

being developed and employed before the collapse of the Hitler regime

in May 1945.

Birthing the American Delta and Swept Wing

The extent to which the swept wing permeated German aeronauti-

cal thought understandably engendered tremendous postwar interest

9. For an example of such work, see Dr. Richard Lehnert, “Bericht über Dreikomponentenmessungen

mit den Gleitermodellen A4 V12/a und A4 V12/c,” Archiv Nr 66/34 (Peenemünde: Heeres-

Versuchsstelle, Nov. 27, 1940), pp. 6-10, Box 674, “C10/V-2/History” ﬁle, archives of the National

Museum of the United States Air Force, Dayton, OH. Re: German research deﬁciencies, see Adolf

Baeumker, Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Führung der deutschen Luftfahrttechnik im ersten halben Jahrhun-

dert, 1900–1950 (Bad Godesberg: Deutschen Forschungs – und Versuchsanstalt für Luft – und Raumfahrt

e. V., 1971), pp. 61–74; Col. Leslie E. Simon, German Scientiﬁc Establishments (Washington: Ofﬁce

of Technical Services, Department of Commerce, 1947), pp. 7–9; Helmuth Trischler, “Self-Mobilization

or Resistance? Aeronautical Research and National Socialism,” and Ulrich Albrecht, “Military Technology

and National Socialist Ideology,” in Monika Renneberg and Mark Walker, eds., Science, Technology,

and National Socialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 72–125. For science and

the Third Reich more generally, see Alan D. Beyerchen, Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics

Community in the Third Reich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); and Kristie Macrakis, Surviving

the Swastika: Scientiﬁc Research in Nazi Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

111

Case 1 | Sweep and Swing: Reshaping the Wing for the Jet and Rocket Age

Aircraft Corporation, began examining various tailless aircraft con-

ﬁgurations. By July 1941, his study had spawned a proposed intercep-

tor ﬁghter powered by a piston engine driving a contra-rotating pusher

propeller. It had a rounded delta planform resembling an arrowhead,

with leading edges swept aft at 56 degrees. It featured a tricycle retract-

able landing gear, twin ventral vertical ﬁns, an extremely streamlined

and rounded conﬁguration, provisions for six heavy machine guns, and

elevons (combined ailerons and elevators) for roll and pitch control.

Gluhareff informed company founder Igor I. Sikorsky that its sharp

sweep would delay the onset of transonic compressibility, noting, “The

general shape and form of the aircraft is, therefore, outstandingly adapt-

able for extremely high speeds.”

In retrospect, Gluhareff’s design was a remarkable achievement,

conceived at just the right time to have been completed with turbojet

propulsion (for which its conﬁguration and internal layout was emi-

nently suited) though circumstances conspired against its development.

Sikorsky was then perfecting the ﬁrst practical helicopter—the VS-300,

another revolutionary development, of course—and chose understand-

ably to concentrate on rotary wing ﬂight. He did authorize Gluhareff to

solicit support from inventor-entrepreneur Roger W. Griswold, presi-

dent of the Ludington-Griswold Company, about building a wind tunnel

model of the conﬁguration.

Tests by United Aircraft proved so encour-

aging that Griswold approached the engineering staff of the Army Air

Forces (AAF) at its Wright Field Aircraft Laboratory about sponsor-

ing what was now called the “Dart.”

But having their ﬁll of visitors

12. Memo, Michael Gluhareff to I.I. Sikorsky, July 1941, copy in the Gluhareff Dart accession

ﬁle, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Gluhareff’s Dart

appeared contemporaneously with a remarkably similar (though with a tractor propeller) Soviet

design by Alexandr Sergeevich Moskalev. Though unclear, it seems Gluhareff ﬁrst conceived the

planform. It is possible that an informal interchange of information between the two occurred, as

Soviet aeronautics and espionage authorities kept close track of American developments and the

activities of the emigree Russian community in America.

13. Griswold is best known as coinventor (with Hugh De Haven) of the three-point seat restraint,

which formed the basis for the modern automotive seat belt; Saab then advanced further, building

upon their work. See “Three-Point Safety Belt is American, not Swedish, Invention,” Status Report,

vol. 35, no. 9 (Oct. 21, 2000), p. 7.

14. Vought-Sikorsky, “Aerodynamic Characteristics of the Preliminary Design of a 1/20 Scale Model

of the Dart Fighter,” Vought-Sikorsky Wind Tunnel Report No. 192 (Nov. 18, 1942), copy in the Glu-

hareff Dart accession ﬁle, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

111

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