强化理论在临床学校心理学中的应用

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"Reinforcement theory在临床学校心理学中的应用" 这篇学术论文探讨了强化理论作为临床学校心理学的基础，作者Merle L. Meacham来自华盛顿大学。近年来，关于心理治疗和咨询的效果及其本质的讨论日益激烈。尽管在这篇论文中作者没有明确区分两者之间的差异（如果确实可以区分的话），但他指出这些问题对于学校心理学家的角色具有重要意义，因为这是他们参与的环境改变之一。论文中提到，一些学者挑战了传统的心理治疗观念，即将其视为治疗某种潜在疾病的方法。例如，Michael & Meyerson (1962), Krumboltz & Schroeder (1965), Krumboltz (1965), Illman & Krasner (1965), 以及Krumboltz (1966)等人主张，采取行为主义方法的心理治疗或咨询，关注行为目标而非疾病实体，不仅对多种行为障碍有效，而且可能避免强化不良行为的问题。这里特别提到了Bandura (1965)关于宣泄效果的研究，他指出实验室研究的总体证据强烈表明，过度强调情感释放（如宣泄）可能会无意中强化不期望的行为。强化理论强调的是通过奖励或惩罚来改变个体行为，而不是仅仅关注情感的发泄。在临床学校心理学中，这一理论可用于设计更有效、更目标导向的干预策略，以帮助学生改善问题行为并建立积极的习惯。通过运用强化理论，学校心理学家可以设计出基于行为改变的干预计划，这些计划可能包括正向强化（奖励良好行为）、负向强化（移除不愉快的情况以鼓励行为改变）、惩罚（对不良行为的后果进行响应）以及消退（减少对某种行为的强化以降低其发生频率）。这种方法有助于解决学校环境中常见的行为问题，如注意力不集中、欺凌行为、学业成绩下降等。强化理论为学校心理学家提供了一个实用的框架，使他们能够更加关注可观察的行为变化，并通过系统性地调整环境来塑造学生的积极行为。这与传统疾病模型的心理治疗不同，后者更侧重于个人内在的心理状态和问题。通过将强化理论应用于实践，学校心理学家可以更有效地支持学生的学习和发展，同时减少和预防不良行为的发展。

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REINFORCEMENT THEORY AS A BASIS FOR CLINICAL

SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

MERLE

MEACHAM

University

Washington

In recent years we have had considerable debate around the eficacy and nature

of psychotherapy and counseling. For the purpose of this paper, we need not dis-

tinguish between them (if indeed this can be done), but indicate that this has re-

levance for our role since this is one of the kinds of environmental modifications that

school psychologists become involved in. Several writers have challenged the tradi-

tional concept of psychotherapy as the treatment of some underlying disease (Mich-

ael

Meyerson,

1962;

Krumboltz

Schroeder,

1965;

Krumbolta,

1965;

Illman

Krasner,

1965;

and Krumboltz,

1966).

They have argued that a behavioral ap-

proach to psychotherapy or counseling which deals with behavioral goals and not

with disease entities is not only effective for many kinds of behavior disorders, but

may avoid the problem of reinforcing undesirable behavior. With reference to the

latter,

am speaking of the effects of catharsis as reported by Bandura

(1965)

which he says, “The over-all evidence from laboratory studies strongly suggests

that psychotherapies employing ‘abreaction’ procedures may be unwittingly main-

taining deviant behavior at its original strength

actually increasing it, rather than

producing the expected cathartic reductions in response strength.’’ He then goes

on to report effective changes in aggressive behavior in children when the socially

acceptable behavior is seen

reinforced and aggressive responses are seen as punish-

ed. Grossberg

(1964)

made an extensive review of the literature on behavior therapy

and concluded that not only has

been effective for many kinds

disorders (pho-

bias, anxiety reactions, enuresis, stuttering and tics; although less

with alcoholism

and sexual disorders)

but also that the behavior modifications were long lasting and

there was little or no evidence of symptom substitution as would be predicted by the

illness model. Indeed, Ullman and Krasner

(1965)

can find little evidence of symp-

tom substitution and suggest that where

seems to be found the behavior can still

be explained in a more parsimonious manner than the illness model.

feel that the significant point for the school psychologist is that he is in an

excellent position to control environmental variables and to deal directly with the

behaviors of children.

we think of the behavioral manifestations as learned and

subject to modification through learning techniques, then we are in an enviable posi-

tion to help youngsters since such a significant segment of their behavior is available

for analysis and modification. Further, we are dealing with learning and in learning

terms, something with which school staffs are familiar and inclined to be cooperative.

am also inclined to speculate that parents would be more cooperative

our dis-

cussions were oriented around teaching the child new behavior rather than family

dynamics. But whatever the youngster’s difficulty out of school, we would not be

able to use that as an excuse for lack of effort

success in school. For our primary

task would be to teach him to discriminate the behavior appropriate for school and

hope that

would generalize to home and the community. In this sense it seems to

me that the behavioral model is as optimistic

it is effective.

In line with this thinking there have been a number of reports of effective use

of behavioral techniques with school oriented problems. Zimmerman and Zimmer-

man

(1962)

report the elimination of unproductive classroom behavior (tantrums,

irrelevant verbal behavior and baby talk) in two emotionally disturbed boys by

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