编程语言基石（第3版）：深入理解与实践

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"《编程语言基础：第三版》(Essentials of Programming Languages, 3rd Edition)由Daniel P. Friedman和Mitchell Wand合著，由麻省理工学院出版社(MIT Press)出版。这本书是一本深入浅出的编程语言入门教材，旨在帮助读者理解各种编程语言的基础概念和原理。本书共分为三版，内容覆盖了编译器与解释器的区别、程序设计语言理论(PLT)等核心主题。在第三版中，作者以清晰易懂的语言，介绍了编程语言的基本构造，包括语法、语义、类型系统以及编译过程和解释执行的差异。编译器是将源代码转换为机器可执行代码的工具，而解释器则是逐行执行源代码，不涉及中间步骤。了解这两种工具的工作方式有助于程序员根据项目需求选择合适的工具链。书中还探讨了程序设计语言的发展历程，以及不同语言的设计哲学，比如面向过程、面向对象和函数式编程。此外，书中包含了大量的示例和实践案例，以便读者通过实际操作来掌握语言特性和编程技巧。本书适合初学者作为编程入门教材，同时也为有一定经验的开发者提供深入理解语言底层机制的视角。版权方面，该书受到严格保护，未经出版商书面许可，任何电子或机械形式的复制（如影印、录音或信息存储和检索）均属侵权。对于批量购买或商业用途，可通过电子邮件special_sales@mitpress.mit.edu或直接联系麻省理工学院出版社的特别销售部门进行咨询。《编程语言基础：第三版》以LaTeX 2ε排版，并在美国印刷装订。它在图书馆学分类上也有所记录，表明其学术地位和权威性。这本书不仅是一本教学用书，也是编程领域研究者和实践者的宝贵参考资料。通过学习本书，读者将建立起坚实的编程语言基础知识，为进一步提升编程技能打下坚实基础。"

Preface

Goal

This book is an analytic study of programming languages. Our goal is to

provide a deep, working understanding of the essential concepts of program-

ming languages. These essentials have proved to be of enduring importance;

they form a basis for understanding future developments in programming

languages.

Most of these essentials relate to the semantics, or meaning, of program

elements. Such meanings reﬂect how program elements are interpreted as

the program executes. Programs called interpreters provide the most direct,

executable expression of program semantics. They process a program by

directly analyzing an abstract representation of the program text. We there-

fore choose interpreters as our primary vehicle for expressing the semantics

of programming language elements.

The most interesting question about a program as object is, “What does it

do?” The study of interpreters tells us this. Interpreters are critical because

they reveal nuances of meaning, and are the direct path to more efﬁcient

compilation and to other kinds of program analyses.

Interpreters are also illustrative of a broad class of systems that transform

information from one form to another based on syntax structure. Compil-

ers, for example, transform programs into forms suitable for interpretation

by hardware or virtual machines. Though general compilation techniques

are beyond the scope of this book, we do develop several elementary pro-

gram translation systems. These reﬂect forms of program analysis typical

of compilation, such as control transformation, variable binding resolution,

and type checking.

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xvi Preface

The following are some of the strategies that distinguish our approach.

1. Each new concept is explained through the use of a small language. These

languages are often cumulative: later languages may rely on the features

of earlier ones.

2. Language processors such as interpreters and type checkers are used to

explain the behavior of programs in a given language. They express lan-

guage design decisions in a manner that is both formal (unambiguous and

complete) and executable.

3. When appropriate, we use interfaces and speciﬁcations to create data

abstractions. In this way, we can change data representation without

changing programs. We use this to investigate alternative implementa-

tion strategies.

4. Our language processors are written both at the very high level needed to

produce a concise and comprehensible view of semantics and at the much

lower level needed to understand implementation strategies.

5. We show how simple algebraic manipulation can be used to predict the

behavior of programs and to derive their properties. In general, however,

we make little use of mathematical notation, preferring instead to study

the behavior of programs that constitute the implementations of our lan-

guages.

6. The text explains the key concepts, while the exercises explore alternative

designs and other issues. For example, the text deals with static binding,

but dynamic binding is discussed in the exercises. One thread of exer-

cises applies the concept of lexical addressing to the various languages

developed in the book.

We provide several views of programming languages using widely vary-

ing levels of abstraction. Frequently our interpreters provide a very high-

level view that expresses language semantics in a very concise fashion, not

far from that of formal mathematical semantics. At the other extreme, we

demonstrate how programs may be transformed into a very low-level form

characteristic of assembly language. By accomplishing this transformation

in small stages, we maintain a clear connection between the high-level and

low-level views.

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Preface xvii

We have made some signiﬁcant changes to this edition. We have includ-

ed informal contracts with all nontrivial deﬁnitions. This has the effect of

clarifying the chosen abstractions. In addition, the chapter on modules is

completely new. To make implementations simpler, the source language for

chapters 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 assumes that exactly one argument can be passed

to a function; we have included exercises that support multiargument pro-

cedures. Chapter 6 is completely new, since we have opted for a ﬁrst-order

compositional continuation-passing-style transform rather than a relational

one. Also, because of the nature of tail-form expressions, we use multiargu-

ment procedures here, and in the objects and classes chapter, we do the same,

though there it is not so necessary. Every chapter has been revised and many

new exercises have been added.

Organization

The ﬁrst two chapters provide the foundations for a careful study of pro-

gramming languages. Chapter 1 emphasizes the connection between induc-

tive data speciﬁcation and recursive programming and introduces several

notions related to the scope of variables. Chapter 2 introduces a data type

facility. This leads to a discussion of data abstraction and examples of repre-

sentational transformations of the sort used in subsequent chapters.

Chapter 3 uses these foundations to describe the behavior of programming

languages. It introduces interpreters as mechanisms for explaining the run-

time behavior of languages and develops an interpreter for a simple, lexically

scoped language with ﬁrst-class procedures and recursion. This interpreter is

the basis for much of the material in the remainder of the book. The chapter

ends by giving a thorough treatment of a language that uses indices in place

of variables and as a result variable lookup can be via a list reference.

Chapter 4 introduces a new component, the state, which maps locations

to values. Once this is added, we can look at various questions of represen-

tation. In addition, it permits us to explore call-by-reference, call-by-name,

and call-by-need parameter-passing mechanisms.

Chapter 5 rewrites our basic interpreter in continuation-passing style. The

control structure that is needed to run the interpreter thereby shifts from

recursion to iteration. This exposes the control mechanisms of the interpreted

language, and strengthens one’s intuition for control issues in general. It also

allows us to extend the language with trampolining, exception-handling,

and multithreading mechanisms.

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Preface xix

Usage

This material has been used in both undergraduate and graduate courses.

Also, it has been used in continuing education courses for professional pro-

grammers. We assume background in data structures and experience both in

a procedural language such as C, C++, or Java, and in Scheme, ML, Python,

or Haskell.

Exercises are a vital part of the text and are scattered throughout. They

range in difﬁculty from being trivial if related material is understood [



], to

requiring many hours of thought and programming work [



]. A great

deal of material of applied, historical, and theoretical interest resides within

them. We recommend that each exercise be read and some thought be given

as to how to solve it. Although we write our program interpretation and

transformation systems in Scheme, any language that supports both ﬁrst-

class procedures and assignment (ML, Common Lisp, Python, Ruby, etc.) is

adequate for working the exercises.

Exercise 0.1 [



] We often use phrases like “some languages have property X.” For

each such phrase, ﬁnd one or more languages that have the property and one or more

languages that do not have the property. Feel free to ferret out this information from

any descriptive book on programming languages (say Scott (2005), Sebesta (2007), or

Pratt & Zelkowitz (2001)).

This is a hands-on book: everything discussed in the book may be imple-

mented within the limits of a typical university course. Because the abstrac-

tion facilities of functional programming languages are especially suited to

this sort of programming, we can write substantial language-processing sys-

tems that are nevertheless compact enough that one can understand and

manipulate them with reasonable effort.

The web site, available through the publisher, includes complete Scheme

code for all of the interpreters and analyzers in this book. The code is writ-

ten in PLT Scheme. We chose this Scheme implementation because its mod-

ule system and programming environment provide a substantial advantage

to the student. The code is largely R

RS-compatible, and should be easily

portable to any full-featured Scheme implementation.

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