集成电路中的智能AD与DA转换技术

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"Smart AD and DA Conversion" 是一本关于模拟电路和信号处理的书籍，由Pieter Harpe、Hans Hegt和Arthur van Roermund合著，探讨了智能模数转换(AD)和数模转换(DA)技术在电子工程中的应用。书中可能涵盖了从半导体历史到集成电路(IC)的发展，以及具有里程碑意义的技术如第一个单片运算放大器和微处理器的发明。在半导体技术的历史中，我们可以追溯到1926年Julius Lilienfeld的专利，这被认为是金属/半导体场效应晶体管的第一个概念。随后，William Shockley、John Bardeen和Walter Brattain在1940年代的工作推动了半导体器件的发展。1958年，Jack Kilby和Robert Noyce分别独立发明了集成电路，这一创新彻底改变了电子工业的面貌。在集成电路设计的关键里程碑中，1963年的Fairchild μA702是第一个单片运算放大器，由Bob Widlar设计，这是模拟电路领域的一个重大突破。1971年，Intel推出了4004，这是世界上第一个单芯片4位微处理器，标志着数字计算的新纪元。模数转换器(ADC)和数模转换器(DAC)在现代电子系统中起着核心作用。ADC将连续的模拟信号转换为离散的数字信号，而DAC则执行相反的操作，将数字信号转换回模拟形式。这些转换在通信、音频、图像处理、医疗设备和各种控制系统中至关重要。书中可能深入讨论了转换器的原理、设计挑战、性能指标（如分辨率、采样率、线性度和噪声）以及优化方法。此外，可能还涵盖了高速、高精度转换器技术，低功耗设计，以及在面对噪声、失调和温度变化时的稳定性问题。 "Smart AD and DA Conversion" 是一本关于模拟和数字转换技术的专业著作，对于理解这些关键电子组件的工作原理、设计策略以及它们在现代科技中的应用具有重要价值。

AD AND DA CONVERSION

design. Both these factors might be used beneﬁcially as will be discussed in

the following sections.

3. Trends in technology

In technology development, the most important trend is down-scaling of the

devices for each technology generation. Next to that, also the power supply

is being reduced. Figure 2.3 shows the development of technology and power

supply as a function of time for the UMC foundry [4]. While the technology

scales down at a relatively constant rate, the power supply scaling ﬂattens out

because of threshold limitations.

100

1000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Technology generation (nm)

Year

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year

Power supply (V)

Figure 2.3. Technology scaling and supply scaling as a function of time.

For digital designs, both trends are beneﬁcial as they enable:

• Higher speed

Because of the reduction of the dimensions of the devices and the inter-

connect, the associated capacitances are also reduced, resulting in a higher

speed of operation.

• Lower power-consumption

The power consumption of digital circuits is proportional to CV

.As

both the capacitances and the supply are being reduced, the power con-

sumption will also decrease.

• Smaller area

The smaller dimensions result in a smaller area or a higher integration

density.

On the other hand, the same trends are not necessarily beneﬁcial for ana-

log designs. For a noise-limited system, the noise-power requirement (kT/C )

results in a minimum C-value to be implemented. Moreover, as the supply

scales down, the signal power most likely also scales down, thus requiring

even an increase in C to maintain the SNR. Because of that, analog circuits

do not directly take advantage of scaling to achieve a higher speed or a lower

power-consumption. Apart from that, technology scaling also complicates ana-

log design because of the following reasons:

• Short channel effects

For smaller transistor geometries, secondary effects become more and more

important. Because of that, the complexity of the transistor behavior in-

creases, which complicates accurate circuit design.

• Low voltage operation

The reduced supply voltage limits the number of transistors that can

be stacked, which complicates the implementation of certain circuit

topologies.

While digital circuit design beneﬁts from technology scaling, analog circuit

design is getting more complicated. For mixed-signal designs, like AD and DA

converters, it seems a logical option to shift some of the analog problems to the

digital domain to be able to beneﬁt from technology scaling.

4. Trends in system design

As mentioned previously in Chapter 1, there is a tendency to integrate more

and more components of a system into a single chip. As signal processing is

predominantly performed in the digital domain while physical signals are ana-

log by nature, this leads to the integration of analog and digital components in

one chip, resulting in mixed-signal ICs. For the integrated analog components,

the system integration offers both new challenges and new opportunities. Some

of the challenges that become more important because of the mixed-signal in-

tegration are the following:

• Hostile environment

Digital circuits create a hostile environment for the analog circuits by caus-

ing interference, which potentially reduces the performance of the analog

circuits.

• Testing

A stand-alone analog component can be tested directly for functionality

or performance. On the other hand, analog components embedded in a

large integrated system cannot be accessed directly, thus complicating test

methodologies. A dedicated test-mode or an internal self-test strategy might

be necessary to facilitate testing.

• Yield

Especially when combining many different components into one integrated

chip, the overall yield might be affected adversely by critical components.

SMART AD AND DA CONVERSION6

AD AND DA CONVERSION

Also, when a single component has an unsatisfactory performance, the total

system might fail. In general, design for high yield becomes more important

for integrated components when compared to stand-alone components.

• Technology portability

Though technology portability is a general issue, it becomes more relevant

for mixed-signal ICs. For stand-alone analog components, a suitable tech-

nology might be selected by the designer. However, for integrated mixed-

signal designs, the technology is most likely determined by the digital part

and the analog circuits have to adopt this technology. Thus, analog de-

signs are required that perform well in digital technologies. Moreover, they

should be portable to future technologies as well, as the digital part of the

system beneﬁts from scaling. A second issue with respect to portability is

the fact that expertise on analog design is required to transfer an existing

design to a new technology.

• Flexibility

Many digital systems are ﬂexible by using programmable hardware like mi-

croprocessors or FPGAs. Flexibility in mixed-signal integrated systems can

be a useful aspect as it widens the application range for a single design and

it allows software updates to accommodate post-production modiﬁcations.

To achieve a higher level of ﬂexibility, also the analog components need to

be ﬂexible (e.g. speed, power, accuracy), while maintaining an appropriate

performance level.

• Design time and risk

The digital design ﬂow is highly automated, which reduces the design time

and risk, especially when porting an existing design to a new technology.

On the other hand, analog circuit design, simulation and layout are mainly

manual tasks with a potentially longer design time and a higher risk. Even

when porting an existing design to a new technology, schematics, simula-

tions and layout need to be redone to a large extent. Techniques to reduce

the design time and risk of analog components are required to suit better

to the digital design ﬂow, and to prevent that analog design becomes the

overall design bottleneck.

Apart from these challenges, mixed-signal integration also gives opportuni-

ties for analog circuit design:

• Reuse of resources

In a large integrated system, not all components will be actively used at all

times. Especially the digital hardware might have free time-slots in which

it can be used for other purposes like self-test or calibration of analog com-

ponents. The freedom to use these already available resources can enhance

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