计算机图形学基础(第3版)：大学教材

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"Fundamentals of Computer Graphics (3rd Edition) 是一本关于计算机图形学的基础教材，由Peter Shirley、Steve Marschner等多位业界专家合著。本书是许多大学计算机图形学课程的选用教材，由NVIDIA Corporation的Peter Shirley和Cornell University的Steve Marschner主笔，并得到了其他多位学者的贡献。该书由AK Peters出版，属于CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group系列。本书首次出版于2009年，电子版ISBN为978-1-4398-6552-1。" 计算机图形学是计算机科学的一个重要分支，主要研究如何在计算设备上创建、处理和显示图像。"Fundamentals of Computer Graphics (3rd Edition)"涵盖了这一领域的核心概念和关键技术，包括： 1. **图形硬件**：介绍GPU（图形处理器）的工作原理，它是现代计算机图形处理的关键组件，负责高效地执行复杂的几何变换、纹理映射和像素操作。 2. **坐标系统与变换**：讲解了笛卡尔坐标系、投影变换、视图变换以及世界坐标到屏幕坐标的转换，这些都是将三维模型呈现到二维屏幕上的基础。 3. **几何建模**：涉及线性代数的应用，如向量、矩阵、四元数，以及如何使用它们进行物体的表示和操作，如平移、旋转和缩放。 4. **光照与渲染**：探讨了光照模型，如Phong模型，以及材质属性对物体外观的影响，还包括了阴影、环境光、全局光照等高级渲染技术。 5. **纹理映射**：介绍了如何使用纹理来增加图像的真实感，包括基本纹理、环境映射、MIP映射等。 6. **抗锯齿与过滤**：讲解了减少图像边缘锯齿和提高图像质量的技术，如多采样抗锯齿（MSAA）、超级采样（SSAA）和各向异性过滤。 7. **图形管道**：概述了OpenGL或DirectX等图形库的工作流程，包括顶点处理、片段处理和帧缓冲操作。 8. **图形编程接口**：介绍如何使用编程语言如C++与图形库交互，实现自定义的图形效果。 9. **动画与交互**：讨论了时间相关的图形处理，如运动学、关键帧动画和物理模拟，以及用户与图形界面的交互设计。 10. **计算机图形学的应用**：涵盖了游戏开发、电影特效、虚拟现实、科学可视化等领域，展示了计算机图形学的实际应用。该书不仅适合计算机科学专业的学生学习，也对图形学开发者和研究人员有很高的参考价值。通过深入浅出的解释和丰富的实例，读者可以系统地掌握计算机图形学的基本理论和实践技能。

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2 1. Introduction

• Modeling deals with the mathematical speciﬁcation of shape and appear-

ance properties in a way that can be stored on the computer. For example,

acoffeemugmightbedescribedasasetofordered3Dpointsalongwith

some interpolation rule to connect the points and a reﬂection model that

describes how light interacts with the mug.

• Rendering is a term inherited from art and deals with the creation of

shaded images from 3D computer models.

• Animation is a technique to create an illusion of motion through sequences

of images. Animation uses modeling and rendering but adds the key issue

of movement over time, which is not usually dealt with in basic modeling

and rendering.

There are many other areas that involve computer graphics, and whether they are

core graphics areas is a matter of opinion. These will all be at least touched on in

the text. Such related areas include the following:

• User interaction deals with the interface between input devices such as

mice and tablets, the application, feedback to the user in imagery, and

other sensory feedback. Historically,thisareaisassociatedwithgraph-

ics largely because graphics researchers had some of the earliest access to

the input/output devices that are now ubiquitous.

• Virtual reality attempts to immerse the user into a 3D virtual world. This

typically requires at least stereo graphics and response to head motion.

For true virtual reality, sound and force feedback should be provided as

well. Because this area requires advanced 3D graphics and advanced dis-

play technology, it is often closely associated with graphics.

• Visualization attempts to give users insight into complex information via

visual display. Often there are graphic issues to be addressed in a visualiza-

tion problem.

• Image processing deals with the manipulation of 2D images and is used in

both the ﬁelds of graphics and vision.

• 3D scanning uses range-ﬁnding technology to create measured 3D models.

Such models are useful for creating rich visual imagery, and the processing

of such models often requires graphics algorithms.

• Computational photography is the use of computer graphics, computer

vision, and image processing methods to enable new ways of photographi-

cally capturing objects, scenes, and environments.

✐

1.2. Major Applications 3

1.2 Major Applications

Almost any endeavor can make some use of computer graphics, but the major

consumers of computer graphics technology include the following industries:

• Video games increasingly use sophisticated 3D models and rendering al-

gorithms.

• Cartoons are often rendered directly from 3D models. Many traditional

2D cartoons use backgrounds rendered from 3D models, which allows a

continuously moving viewpoint without huge amounts of artist time.

• Visual effects use almost all types of computer graphics technology. Al-

most every modern ﬁlm uses digital compositing to superimpose back-

grounds with separately ﬁlmed foregrounds. Many ﬁlms also use 3D mod-

eling and animation to create synthetic environments, objects, and even

characters that most viewers will never suspect are not real.

• Animated ﬁlms use many of the same techniques that are used for visual

effects, but without necessarily aiming for images that look real.

• CAD/CAM stands for computer-aided design and computer-aided manu-

facturing.Theseﬁelds use computer technology to design parts and prod-

ucts on the computer and then, using these virtual designs, to guide the

manufacturing process. For example, many mechanical parts are designed

in a 3D computer modeling package and then automatically produced on a

computer-controlled milling device.

• Simulation can be thought of as accurate video gaming. For example, a

ﬂight simulator uses sophisticated 3D graphics to simulate the experience

of ﬂying an airplane. Such simulations can be extremely useful for initial

training in safety-critical domains such as driving, and for scenario training

for experienced users such as speciﬁc ﬁre-ﬁghting situations that are too

costly or dangerous to create physically.

• Medical imaging creates meaningful images of scanned patient data. For

example, a computed tomography (CT) dataset is composed of a large 3D

rectangular array of density values. Computer graphics is used to create

shaded images that help doctors extract the most salient information from

such data.

• Information visualization creates images of data that do not necessarily

have a “natural” visual depiction. For example, the temporal trend of the

✐

4 1. Introduction

price of ten different stocks does not have an obvious visual depiction, but

clever graphing techniques can help humans see the patterns in such data.

1.3 Graphics APIs

A key part of using graphics libraries is dealing with a graphics API.Anapplica-

tion program interface (API) is a standard collection of functions to perform a set

of related operations, and a graphics API is a set of functions that perform basic

operations such as drawing images and 3D surfaces into windows on the screen.

Every graphics program needs to be abletousetworelatedAPIs:agraphics

API for visual output and a user-interface API to get input from the user. There

are currently two dominant paradigms forgraphicsanduser-interfaceAPIs. The

ﬁrst is the integrated approach, exempliﬁed by Java, where the graphics and user-

interface toolkits are integrated and portable packages that are fully standardized

and supported as part of the language. The second is represented by Direct3D

and OpenGL, where the drawing commands are part of a software library tied to

alanguagesuchasC++,andtheuser-interface software is an independent entity

that might vary from system to system. In this latter approach, it is problematic

to write portable code, although for simple programs it may be possible to use a

portable library layer to encapsulate the system speciﬁcuser-interfacecode.

Whatever your choice of API, the basic graphics calls will be largely the same,

and the concepts of this book will apply.

1.4 Graphics Pipeline

Every desktop computer today has a powerful 3D graphics pipeline.Thisisa

special software/hardware subsystem that efﬁciently draws 3D primitives in per-

spective. Usually these systems are optimized for processing 3D triangles with

shared vertices. The basic operations in the pipeline map the 3D vertex locations

to 2D screen positions and shade the triangles so that they both look realistic and

appear in proper back-to-front order.

Although drawing the triangles in valid back-to-front order was once the most

important research issue in computer graphics, it is now almost always solved

using the z-buffer,whichusesaspecialmemorybuffertosolvetheproblemina

brute-force manner.

It turns out that the geometric manipulation used in the graphics pipeline can

be accomplished almost entirely in a 4D coordinate space composed of three tra-

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