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Psychology
in
ihe
Schools
Volume
20.
July.
I983
THE EFFECT OF TIME OF DAY
ON
PROBLEM SOLVING AND CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR
ROBERT
ZAGAR
AND NORMAN
D.
BOWERS'
Northwestern University
This study describes fluctuations in problem solving and classroom behaviors during
the school day for nonmedicated pupils who had attention deficits with hyperkinesis.
The
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participating pupils were observed with Stonybrook Observation Code, and
tested with Stroop Color-Word Test, Matching Familiar Figures, Porteus Mazes, and
Digit Span. Test data were collected in counterbalanced morning and afternoon
sessions. Twenty-one pupils were administered the tests in the morning and in the
afternoon; the remainder were tested in the afternoon and in the following morning.
Equivalent test forms were used. Direct observations were completed for four minutes
in the morning and for four minutes in the afternoon once each week over a four-week
period. Repeated measures Multivariate
ANOVAs
were followed by univariate and
correlational analyses. On problem-solving tasks except Digit Span, pupils performed
better in the morning. In classroom behavior, all pupils exhibited more interference,
off-task, noncompliance, and minor motor movement in the afternoon. The results are
discussed in terms of scheduling problem-solving tasks in the morning and less struc-
tured activities in the afternoon.
This study was undertaken to describe fluctuations of problem solving and
classroom behavior during the school day (morning and afternoon) for a sample of pupils
who had attention-deficits with hyperkinesis, and to relate these fluctuations to teaching
and classroom organizational variables. Performance fluctuations have not been studied
for pupils with special characteristics.
The
assumption has been that pupils with special
characteristics are different from pupils with no diagnosed learning difficulties. Previous
studies have shown that normal children and adults have fluctuations of problem solving
during the day that are independent of fatigue and boredom (Colquhoun,
1971;
Johnson,
et al., 1981; Mackenberg, et al.,
1974).
Of all the childhood disorders, attention-deficits with hyperkinesis has generated the
greatest amount of interest and controversy (Whalen
&
Henker, 1980). Estimates of
prevalence range from
1
to
20%
for all school-age children (Renshaw,
1974).
The defini-
tion and diagnosis of attention-deficits with hyperkinesis includes a constellation of
symptoms extending along various behavioral, perceptual-cognitive, and social-
environmental dimensions. The primary symptoms consist of excessive activity, short
attention span, poor scholastic performance despite normal intelligence, impulsivity, ex-
citability, and distractibility (DSM-111). In addition, several secondary signs often are
present such as aggressiveness, low frustration, and poor self-esteem (Clements, 1966;
Whalen
&
Henker,
1980).
Two approaches to defining attention-deficits with hyperkinesis
in
children are
educational performance and activity-arousal models. The educational models describe
problems
in
efficient task strategies. Torgensen
(1977)
suggests that learning failure in
these children does not necessarily indicate a specific psychological process deficit in
attention, short-term memory,
or
perception. Rather, performance decrements are
viewed in different task settings as due to the child's failure to engage in the task through
efficient strategies
in
learning (Flavell,
1971).
The poor performance of these children is
interpreted as a lack of cognitive and emotional characteristics necessary to adapt to task
Requests
for
reprints should be sent to Norman D. Bowers, School of Education, Northwestern Univer-
'The authors wish to express their gratitude to the staff of North Suburban Special Education District and
sity, Evanston,
IL
60201.
Deerfield School District.
337