Direct3D图形编程基础与实战

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"Direct3D.Graphics.Programming.Bible是一本深入介绍Windows编程基础，特别是针对Direct3D图形编程的书籍。书中避免了使用Microsoft Foundation Class Library (MFC)或其他商业开发环境提供的封装函数，因为这些可能会增加执行时的开销，并限制程序功能，对于图形程序，尤其是3D应用，这是不可接受的。DirectX本身也不支持MFC，因此对图形程序员来说没有额外的优势。本书分为五个部分，从基础知识到DirectDraw，再到Direct3D的深度应用，全面覆盖了3D图形编程的关键概念和技术。" 在《Direct3D.Graphics.Programming.Bible》中，作者首先介绍了计算机作为图形处理平台的基础知识，包括PC硬件的角色、图形表示与建模、3D图像变换、3D渲染以及计算机动画等。这部分旨在为读者建立坚实的图形学基础。 Part II专注于DirectDraw，这是一个用于2D图形加速的DirectX组件。这部分详细讲解了DirectDraw的基本原理、配置与设置、直接访问视频内存、位图的绘制和变换，以及动画技巧和编程方法，旨在让读者掌握高效2D渲染的技术。 Part III是关于3D图形处理的核心——Direct3D。这里从入门开始，逐步讲解保留模式编程的基础、系统级操作、设备级操作和视口级操作。这一部分的目标是让读者理解Direct3D如何在3D环境中工作并实现复杂效果。 Part IV深入到Direct3D编程，涵盖了局部帧操作、帧属性与场景控制、网格操作、纹理与材质、贴花和 mipmaps、光照与阴影，以及3D动画。这些章节将理论知识与实践技巧相结合，帮助读者创建出具有真实感的3D场景。尽管本书并未包含完整的附录内容，但可以推测，这部分可能包含了重要的参考信息、资源列表、API索引或常见问题解答，以补充和支持前面各章的学习。《Direct3D.Graphics.Programming.Bible》是一本全面而深入的教程，适合希望学习或提升Direct3D 3D图形编程技能的开发者。通过阅读本书，读者将能够掌握创建高性能3D应用程序所需的全部技术和知识。

Chapter 1: The PC as a Graphics Machine

Overview

This chapter contains a smorgasbord of introductory topics that relate to graphics on the PC. The

idea is to provide a historical summary of the evolution of PC graphics, an overview of the state-of-

the-art, and a short list of related technologies and fields of application. Our rationale for including

this material is the difficulty in understanding the characteristics of current PC graphics systems

without knowing how and why they came into existence. Many of the PC graphics hardware

components in use today evolved through a series of changes, some of which were influenced by

concerns of backward compatibility.

History and Evolution

Today, a typical computer is equipped with a high-resolution display, a graphics card or integral

video system, and an operating system that supports a graphical user interface (GUI). Graphics

are now the norm, but this was not always the case; for several decades computer input and

output was text-based and machines were equipped with teletype terminals and line printers. It

was in the 1960s that television technology was adapted to producing computer output on a

cathode ray tube (CRT).

Sometimes, the transition from text-based systems into interactive graphics was slow. Today we

watch in amazement a video clip taken in the early 1960s of Doug Englebart demonstrating a

graphical user interface based on mouse input and CRT graphics. It took fifteen years for this

system to become commercially available in the Apple Lisa, predecessor to the Macintosh.

Cathode ray tube technology

Computers were not the first machines to use the cathode ray tube (CRT) for graphic display. The

oscilloscope, a common laboratory apparatus, performs operations on an input signal to display

the graph of the electric or electronic wave on a fluorescent screen. In computer applications the

technologies most used for CRT displays can be classified into three groups: storage tube, vector

refresh, and raster-scan.

In its simplest form, the CRT display consists of a glass tube whose interior is coated with a

specially formulated phosphor; when struck by an electron beam, it remains fluorescent for up to

one hour. This technology, usually called a storage tube display, is used as a display and as a

storage device. Flooding the tube with a voltage turns the phosphor to its dark state, which erases

the image. One limitation is that specific screen areas cannot be erased individually. Because of

this, the entire CRT surface must be redrawn to make a small change in a displayed image.

Furthermore, the storage tube display has no color capabilities and contrast is low. For these

reasons, in spite of its inherent simplicity, storage tube displays are seldom used in computers and

never in microcomputers.

In contrast with the storage tube display, the vector-refresh display uses a short-persistence

phosphor whose coating must be reactivated by an electron beam at the rate of 30 to 50 times per

second. In addition to the cathode ray tube, a vector-refresh system requires a display file and a

display controller. The display file is a memory area that holds the instructions for drawing the

objects to be displayed. The display controller reads this information from the display file and

transforms it into digital commands and data, which are sent to the CRT. Figure 1-1 shows the

fundamental elements of a vector-refresh display system.

corresponding pixel as white. If the memory bit is cleared, the pixel is left dark. The area of

memory reserved for the screen display is frequently called the frame buffer or the video buffer,

and the entire video system is said to be memory-mapped. Figure 1-3 shows the elements of a

memory-mapped video system.

Figure 1-3: Memory-mapped video system

A memory-mapped color video system requires a more elaborate scheme. In color systems the

CRT is equipped with an electron gun for each color that is used in activating the pixels. The most

common approach is to use three color-sensitive guns: one for the red, one for the green, and one

for the blue components. Color data must be stored separately in memory for each of the three

colors, either in individual memory maps, or in predefined units of storage. For example, if one

memory byte is used to encode the pixel's color attributes, three bits could be assigned to encode

the red color, two bits to encode the green color, and three bits for the blue color.

One possible mapping of colors to pixels is shown in color plate 1. In this example we have

arbitrarily divided one memory byte into three separate bit fields which encode the three-color

values that determine each individual screen pixel. The individual bits are designated with the

letters R, G, and B, respectively. Since eight combinations can be encoded in a three-bit field, the

blue and red color components could each have eight levels of intensity. Because we have used a

two-bit field to encode the green color, it can only be represented in four levels of intensity. The

total number of combinations that can be encoded in eight bits is 256, which, in this case, is also

the number of different color values that can be represented in one memory byte. The color code

is transmitted by the display controller hardware to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), which, in

turn, transmits the color video signals to the CRT.

All video systems used in the PC are of the memory-mapped, raster-scan type. The advantages of

a raster-scan display are low cost, color capability, and easy interaction with the operator. One

major disadvantage is the grainy physical structure of the display surface. Among other

aberrations, this causes lines that are not vertical, horizontal, or at exactly 45 degrees, to exhibit a

staircase effect, shown in Figure 1-4.

Figure 1-4: Staircase effect in a raster-scan system

Raster-scan systems also have limitations in implementing animation. Two factors contribute to

this problem: first, all the screen pixels within a rectangular area must be updated with each image

change. Second, the successive images that create the illusion of motion must be flashed on the

screen at a fast rate to ensure smoothness. These constraints place a large processing load on

the microprocessor and the display system hardware, in any display system.

PC video technologies

In 1981 IBM introduced the first model of its microcomputer line. The original machines were

offered with either a monochrome display adapter (MDA), or a graphics system named the

color/graphics monitor adapter (CGA). IBM's notion was that users who intended to use the PC for

text operations exclusively would purchase a machine equipped with the MDA video system, while

those requiring graphics would buy one equipped with the CGA card. In reality, the CGA video

system provided only the most simple and unsophisticated graphics functions. The color card was

also plagued with interference problems that created a screen disturbance called "snow."

However, the fact that the original IBM Personal Computer was furnished with the optional CGA

card signaled that IBM considered video graphics an important part of microcomputing.

At present, PC video hardware includes an assortment of systems, cards, monitors, and options

manufactured and marketed by many companies. In the following pages we briefly discuss the

history and evolution of the better-known PC video systems. Systems that were short-lived or that

gained little popularity, such as the PCJr, the IBM Professional Graphics Controller, the Multicolor

Graphics Array, and the IBM Image Adapter A, are not discussed.

Monochrome Display Adapter

The MDA is the original alphanumeric display card designed and distributed by IBM for the

Personal Computer. Originally, it was sold as the Monochrome Display and Printer Adapter

because it included a parallel printer port. It could display the entire range of alphanumeric and

graphic characters in the IBM character set, but did not provide graphics functions. The MDA was

compatible with the IBM PC, PC XT, and PC AT, and some of the earlier models of the PS/2 line. It

could not be used in the PCJr, the PC Convertible, or MicroChannel PS/2 machines. The MDA

required a monochrome monitor of long-persistence (P39) phosphor. The video hardware was

based on the Motorola 6845 CRT controller. The system contained 4K of on-board video memory,

mapped to physical address B0000H.

The MDA is a pure alphanumeric display; the programmer cannot access the individual screen

pixels, but sees the video screen as a collection of character and attribute cells. The character

codes occupy the even-numbered bytes of adapter memory and the display attributes the odd-

numbered bytes. This special storage and display scheme was conceived to save memory space

and to simplify programming. Figure 1-5 shows the cell structure of the MDA video memory space

and the bitmap for the attribute cells.

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