"AFORS-HET研究：氢化非晶硅/晶硅太阳能电池建模工程材料"

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材料教材《AFORS-HET学习说明（588页）》是由Wilfried G.J.H.M. van Sark、Lars Korte和Francesco Roca等人编写的。该教材涵盖了非晶-晶质异质结硅太阳能电池的物理和技术知识。作者们分别来自荷兰的乌得勒支大学、德国的赫尔姆霍兹能源材料研究中心以及意大利国家新技术、能源和可持续经济发展机构。该教材主要介绍了使用AFORS-HET软件对非晶硅/晶硅太阳能电池进行建模的相关理论和技术。AFORS-HET是一种用于太阳能电池的建模和仿真的软件，可以帮助工程师和研究人员分析不同结构和材料组合对太阳能电池性能的影响。该教材的目标读者包括学生、研究人员和从事太阳能领域工作的技术人员。通过学习该教材，读者可以了解非晶-晶质异质结硅太阳能电池的基本原理、结构设计、光伏材料特性以及AFORS-HET软件的使用方法。总的来说，该教材对研究非晶-晶质异质结硅太阳能电池的人员提供了全面而深入的知识，并且能够帮助他们掌握使用AFORS-HET软件进行建模与仿真的技能。

XX List of Abbreviations, Units, and Signs

PC : planar conductance

PCD : photoconductance decay

PDS : photothermal deflection spectroscopy

PECVD : plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition

pEDMR : pulsed electrically detected magnetic resonance

PERL : passivated emitter and rear locally diffused

PERT : passivated emitter rear totally diffused

PES : photoelectron spectroscopy

PESC : passivated emitter solar cell

PL : photoluminescence

PLD : pulsed laser deposition

PMMA : poly methyl methacrylate

pm-Si :H : polymorphous silicon

por-Si : porous silicon

PRECASH : point rear emitter crystalline/amorphous silicon

heterojunction

PS : photoyield spectroscopy

PV : photovoltaics

PVD : physical vapour deposition

QSSPC : quasi-steady-state photoconductance

RCA : radio corporation of america

RCPCD : resonance-coupled photoconductive decay

RE : rear emitter

RECASH : rear emitter crystalline/amorphous silicon

heterojunction

RF : radio frequency

RT : room temperature

SAF : Salpetersäure – Ammoniumfluorid – Flusssäure

(etch mixture of nitric acid, 70% HNO

, ammonia

fluoride, 40% NH

F, and hydrofluoric acid, 50% HF)

SC : semiconductor

SCR : space charge region

SDPC : spin dependent photoconductivity

SDT : spin dependent transport

SE : spectroscopic ellipsometry

SE : selective emitter

SEM : scanning electron microscopy

SHJ : crystalline silicon heterojunction

SlSF : Schwefelsäure – Salpetersäure - Flusssäure

(etch mixture of sulphuric acid, 96% H

, nitric acid,

70% HNO

, and hydrofluoric acid, 50% HF)

SOD : spin-on dopant

SPM : sulphuric peroxide mixture

SPV : surface photovoltage

SR : spectral response

SRH : Shockley-Read-Hall

W.G.J.H.M. van Sark et al. (Eds.): Physics & Tech. of Amorphous-Crystalline, EM, pp. 1–12.

springerlink.com © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012

Chapter 1

Introduction – Physics and Technology of

Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon

Solar Cells

Wilfried van Sark

, Lars Korte

, and Francesco Roca

Utrecht University, Copernicus Institute, Science, Technology and Society,

Budapestlaan 6, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands

Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin GmbH, Department Silicon Photovoltaics, Kekuléstraße 5,

D-12489 Berlin, Germany

ENEA - Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie,

l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile - Unità Tecnologie Portici,

Localitá Granatello, P. le E. Fermi, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy

1.1 General Introduction

Although photovoltaic solar energy technology (PV) is not the sole answer to the

challenges posed by the ever-growing energy consumption worldwide, this renew-

able energy option can make an important contribution to the economy of each

country. According to the New Policies Scenario of the “World Energy Outlook

2010” published in November 2010 by the International Energy Agency (IEA) [1],

it is to be expected that the share of renewable energies in global energy produc-

tion increases threefold over the period 2008-2035, and that almost one third of

global electricity production will come from renewables by 2035, thus catching up

with coal. The “Solar Generation 6” report of the European Photovoltaic Industry

association published in October 2010 [2] predicts in its Solar Generation Para-

digm Shift Scenario that by 2050, PV could generate enough solar electricity to sa-

tisfy 21% of the world electricity needs, i.e. a total of up to 6750 TWh of solar PV

electricity in 2050, coming from an installed capacity of 4670 GW in 2050. This is

to be compared with 40 GW installed in the world at the end of 2010 [3].

After the first solar cell was demonstrated in silicon 55 years ago [4] the cost

has declined by a factor of nearly 200, and high-throughput mass-production com-

patible processes are omnipresent all over the globe. More than 90% of the current

production uses first generation PV wafer based crystalline Silicon (c-Si), a tech-

nology with the ability to continue to reduce its cost at its historic rate [5,6].

The direct production costs for crystalline silicon modules are expected to be

around 1

€

€ /Wp in 2013, below 0.75

€

€ /Wp in 2020 and lower in the long term, as

stated in the Strategic Research Agenda of the European Photovoltaic Technology

Platform [7].

2 W. van Sark, L. Korte, and F. Roca

However the challenge of developing photovoltaic technology to a cost-

competitive alternative for established fossil-fuel based energy sources remains

enormous and new cell concepts based on thin films of various types of organic

and inorganic materials are entering the market. Thin film silicon (TFS), cadmium

telluride (CdTe), copper indium selenide (CIS) generally are denoted as the

second generation of PV technologies and are currently considered a very interest-

ing market alternative to crystalline silicon. Advanced thin film approaches such

as dye-sensitized titanium oxide (TiO

) and blends of polythiophene and C

(P3HT:PCBM) [8] are showing fast progress. World-record solar cell efficiencies

are regularly updated, see e.g. [9], and some interesting initiatives related to their

industrialization and commercialization have recently been undertaken.

For large scale PV deployment in large power plants or in building integrated

applications it is a prerequisite that the performance of solar energy systems is en-

hanced by assuring low cost in production and long term reliability (>25 years).

This requires the following issues to be addressed: 1) increase of the efficiency of

solar irradiation conversion; 2) decrease of the amount of materials that are used,

while these materials should be durable, stable, and abundant on earth; and 3)

reduction of the manufacturing and installation cost.

The fantastic boom of thin film technology in recent years can suggest further

development on the medium to long term due to the application of innovative con-

cepts to conventional materials and developments of new classes of thin film

materials stemming from nanotechnologies, photonics, optical metamaterials,

plasmonics and new semiconducting organic and inorganic sciences, most of them

recognized as next (third) generation approaches.

On the other hand the growth of the PV industry is also requesting well proven

technology in order to sustain the emerging market; here, crystalline silicon has a

long history of ‘pulling rabbits out of the hat’ [5].

Today, the industry has reached a new level of scale that is mobilizing vast new

resources, enthusiasm, skills, and energy in order to reduce wafer thickness, en-

hance efficiency and improve processes related to substrate cleaning, junction re-

alization, surface passivation, contact realization. We see that PV’s historic price

reduction is a result from the combined effects of step-by-step evolutionary im-

provements in a wide variety of areas rather than one or two huge breakthroughs

[5,6]. For example, processes such as dry texturing, spray-on phosphorus doping

sources or impurity gettering have become standard, while last but not least ac-

tions related to increase the factory size and automation further lead to cost reduc-

tions (“economies of scale”).

In contrast, larger values of the conversion efficiency of PV technology have

been reached with the realization of sophisticated crystalline silicon (c-Si) cell

structures, involving numerous and very complicated steps. This approach inevita-

bly implies an increase of costs, which is not compatible with industrial production

requirements that demand simple, high-throughput and reproducible processes.

In order to realize reliable devices characterized by high efficiency and low

cost, an approach has been developed on the basis of amorphous/crystalline silicon

heterojunction solar cells (SHJ), which combines wafer and thin film technologies.

In this area impressive results were achieved by Sanyo Electric with the so called

a-Si/c-Si Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin layer (HIT) solar cell [10,11]. This

technology showed excellent surface passivation (open circuit voltage (V

) values

1 Introduction – Physics and Technology 3

of around 730 mV) and the highest power conversion efficiency to date for a cell

size of 100.4 cm

: 23.0% was obtained [11].

1.2 Amorphous Crystalline Heterojunction Solar Cells

The design of the silicon hetero-junction solar cell is based on an emitter and back

surface field (BSF) that are produced by low temperature growth of ultra-thin

layers of amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) on both sides of a thin crystalline silicon

wafer-base, less than 200 µm in thickness, where electrons and holes are photoge-

nerated. The low temperature a-Si:H deposition lowers the thermal budget in the

production of the cell (see Fig. 1.1), and at the same time will allow for high-

throughput production machinery. Taken together, this can lead to a considerable

lowering of manufacturing costs thus opening opportunities for the production of

GWp/year manufacturing plants to sustain the booming PV market.

Shorter process time

400

600

800

1000

Process temperature (C°)

ARC

screen printing & firing

30’

0,5’

5’

p/n junction

formation

by PECVD

3’

10’

Time (min)

TCO

10’

Electrical

Contacts

p/n junction diffusion

screen printing &

annealing

10’

Lower temperature

200

Fig. 1.1 Authors’ estimated thermal budget and process time for the conventional c-Si tech-

nology (top curve) and SHJ technology (bottom curve).

The idea of making solar cells from silicon heterojunctions is a rather old one:

It was first published in 1974 by Walther Fuhs and coworkers from the University

of Marburg (Germany) [12]. However, it turned out that to realize the V

poten-

tial > 700 mV inherent to the heterojunction concept, it is mandatory to include

additional, very thin (of the order of 10 nm) undoped – so called intrinsic – a-Si:H

buffer layers between the wafer and the doped (emitter or BSF) a-Si:H layers.

Briefly, the reason is that the defect density in a-Si:H increases strongly with

doping, and this leads to an increase in interface defect density at the a-Si:H/c-Si

junction, thus to enhanced recombination and a lower V

. This finding is the es-

sence of a patent filed by Sanyo in 1991, which can be seen as the “core patent”

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