PrinciplesofComputerSystemDesignPartII_computerarchitecture

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Principles of Computer

System Design

An Introduction

Part II

Chapters 7–11

Jerome H. Saltzer

M. Frans Kaashoek

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Version 5.0

Saltzer & Kaashoek Ch. Part II, p. i June 24, 2009 12:14 am

CHAPTER

Contents

PART I [In Printed Textbook]

List of Sidebars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xix

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii

Where to Find Part II and other On-line Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxix

Computer System Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xliii

CHAPTER 1 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.1. Systems and Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1.1 Common Problems of Systems in Many Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1.2 Systems, Components, Interfaces and Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.1.3 Complexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.2. Sources of Complexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.2.1 Cascading and Interacting Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.2.2 Maintaining High Utilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.3. Coping with Complexity I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.3.1 Modularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.3.2 Abstraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.3.3 Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.3.4 Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.3.5 Putting it Back Together: Names Make Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.4. Computer Systems are the Same but Different . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1.4.1 Computer Systems Have no Nearby Bounds on Composition . . . . . 28

1.4.2 d(technology)/dt is Unprecedented. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.5. Coping with Complexity II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1.5.1 Why Modularity, Abstraction, Layering, and Hierarchy aren’t

Enough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.5.2 Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.5.3 Keep it Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

What the Rest of this Book is about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

iii

Saltzer & Kaashoek Ch. 0, p. iii June 24, 2009 12:21 am

Contents

CHAPTER 2 Elements of Computer System Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

2.1. The Three Fundamental Abstractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

2.1.1 Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

2.1.2 Interpreters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

2.1.3 Communication Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

2.2. Naming in Computer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2.2.1 The Naming Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

2.2.2 Default and Explicit Context References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

2.2.3 Path Names, Naming Networks, and Recursive Name Resolution . . .71

2.2.4 Multiple Lookup: Searching through Layered Contexts . . . . . . . . . . .73

2.2.5 Comparing Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

2.2.6 Name Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

2.3. Organizing Computer Systems with Names and Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

2.3.1 A Hardware Layer: The Bus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

2.3.2 A Software Layer: The File Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

2.4. Looking Back and Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

2.5. Case Study:

UNIX

® File System Layering and Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

2.5.1 Application Programming Interface for the

UNIX

File System . . . . . .91

2.5.2 The Block Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

2.5.3 The File Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

2.5.4 The Inode Number Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

2.5.5 The File Name Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

2.5.6 The Path Name Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

2.5.7 Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

2.5.8 Renaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

2.5.9 The Absolute Path Name Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

2.5.10 The Symbolic Link Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

2.5.11 Implementing the File System API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106

2.5.12 The Shell, Implied Contexts, Search Paths, and Name Discovery .110

2.5.13 Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

CHAPTER 3 The Design of Naming Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

3.1. Considerations in the Design of Naming Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

3.1.1 Modular Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116

Saltzer & Kaashoek Ch. 0, p. iv June 24, 2009 12:21 am

Contents

3.1.2 Metadata and Name Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

3.1.3 Addresses: Names that Locate Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

3.1.4 Generating Unique Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

3.1.5 Intended Audience and User-Friendly Names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.1.6 Relative Lifetimes of Names, Values, and Bindings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

3.1.7 Looking Back and Ahead: Names are a Basic System Component . 131

3.2. Case Study: The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

3.2.1 Surﬁng as a Referential Experience; Name Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . 132

3.2.2 Interpretation of the URL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3.2.3 URL Case Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

3.2.4 Wrong Context References for a Partial URL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

3.2.5 Overloading of Names in URLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

3.3. War Stories: Pathologies in the Use of Names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

3.3.1 A Name Collision Eliminates Smiling Faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

3.3.2 Fragile Names from Overloading, and a Market Solution . . . . . . . . 139

3.3.3 More Fragile Names from Overloading, with Market Disruption . . 140

3.3.4 Case-Sensitivity in User-Friendly Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

3.3.5 Running Out of Telephone Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

CHAPTER 4 Enforcing Modularity with Clients and Services . . . . . . . . . . .147

Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

4.1. Client/service organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

4.1.1 From soft modularity to enforced modularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

4.1.2 Client/service organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

4.1.3 Multiple clients and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

4.1.4 Trusted intermediaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

4.1.5 A simple example service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

4.2. Communication between client and service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.2.1 Remote procedure call (RPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.2.2 RPCs are not identical to procedure calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

4.2.3 Communicating through an intermediary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

4.3. Summary and the road ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

4.4. Case study: The Internet Domain Name System (DNS) . . . . . . . . . . . 175

4.4.1 Name resolution in DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

4.4.2 Hierarchical name management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

4.4.3 Other features of DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

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