feature very limited displays and input capabilities, RS can play an important role to reduce the information overload. There-
fore, mobile tourism guides are the most usual application of CARS [22,61]. A mobile guide supports travelers in planning,
organizing and executing a journey [8]. As the user moves, the guide helps him/her to find relevant services and information
according to the location being visited. Nevertheless, CARS are also being actively used in additional fields, e.g., for suggesting
music according the user mood or location [7,14,71] or for proposing stores [77] and mobile applications to purchase [13].
Early mobile guides focused on exploiting context information to determine the appropriateness of POIs, but lacked an
actual recommendation engine. See for example Cyberguide [1], Guide [19], Crumpet [56] or Compass [69].
However, more recent systems also took into consideration users’ tastes and preferences. The aim of these systems con-
sists of incorporating available contextual information into the modeling process of the recommendation. Typically, either
content-based or collaborative filtering is used for this purpose. Content-based recommenders aim at taking advantage of
customer’s previous choices. Recent proposals in this category include I’m feeling LoCo [65] and the proposals of Kuo
et al. [39] and Yang et al. [77]. On the other hand, collaborative recommenders exploit knowledge about other customers
with similar interests, see for example GeoWhiz [31], MyMytilene [36] or the proposals of Biuk-Aghai et al. [10] and Huang
et al. [32].
2.3. Mobile 3D geographic information systems
According to Demers [21], a geographic information system is a software system designed to input, store, edit, retrieve,
analyze and output geographically referenced data, i.e., data tied explicitly to known points on the earth’s surface. GIS are
valuable tools for tourism services because products offered in this commerce sector are usually places which can be located
on a map, e.g., accommodation, restaurants, monuments, etc. Consequently, most advanced mobile tourist guides reported in
the literature use 2D GIS technologies to represent spatial data [35]. These 2D map-based interfaces typically provide users
with the ability to graphically visualize geographic entities and recommended items in an intuitive way, allowing them to
assess how far items are from their current position and among them.
Unfortunately, 2D map-based interfaces also have some problems. Mobile devices with small screens have limitations on
the size of the geographic area that they can display at one time [15]. Therefore, a global view of area around the user is only
possible by reducing the scale of the map. But as a tradeoff, users may find this scaled-down representation confusing be-
cause of the loss of detail and the high amount of information simultaneously displayed on the screen. Eventually, 2D maps
also require cognitive resources and topological reasoning to read the mobile map and relate it to the environment that sur-
rounds the user [52].
Recently, the popularity of 3D GIS solutions for desktop computers has rapidly increased due to the fact that 3D repre-
sentations provide an immersive user experience and permit real-time fly-throughs, among other benefits [44,52]. Note that
although 2D maps are frequently rendered under a false perspective projection (e.g., on most car navigation systems), these
maps are not true 3D representations because the 3D characteristics of the environment are missing.
In the mobile field, however, battery-based handheld devices have historically suffered from severe hardware constraints
which left them outside of the 3D GIS market. Fortunately, the advent of mobile graphics processing units (GPUs) during the
last 2–3 years has boosted the graphics capabilities of mobile devices [5,18], opening the door to the development of mobile
3D maps based applications which were unbelievable just some years ago, see for example [50,51].
Technically, 3D maps are commonly implemented by using digital elevation models (DEMs) [21,44] and realism is further
enhanced by adding photo textures, consisting of actual aerial/satellite imagery. However, the ever increasing size and res-
olution of terrain datasets widely exceeds the capabilities of any computer. Therefore, out-of-core solutions are widely used,
which store the complete dataset in a remote server, from where the required parts of the terrain are progressively streamed
to the client over a network, see [53] for further details.
3. A 3D-GIS mobile location-aware recommender system
Here a 3D context-aware mobile recommender system is introduced. This proposal could be applied to different e-tour-
ism purposes, but in this paper we upgrade the REJA system [46,63] from a web-based RS to a 3D map-based mobile CARS
whose goals are:
Ubiquity: users may use the system wherever they like. The mobile platform and GIS are key factors to achieve this goal.
Location-awareness
: because of the ubiquitous nature of the system, it seems necessary and convenient that the recom-
mendations provided are adapted to the user’s current location.
3D-interface: the usability of mobile applications is crucial for its success. Here we propose a 3D solution with innovative
features as 3D geovisualization, location, etc.
Originally, REJA was formed by a commutation hybridizing system with collaborative and knowledge filtering. Location
information has been integrated following two different approaches [3]. The new schema is graphically showed in Fig. 1, and
it involves the following phases:
40 J.M. Noguera et al. / Information Sciences 215 (2012) 37–52
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