How does the QW LED operate?

The QW LED operates by using a semiconductor material, such as gallium nitride, to convert electrical energy into light. As an electrical current flows through the material, it excites electrons in the semiconductor, causing them to release photons of light energy.

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How does the avalanche photodiode operate?

The avalanche photodiode (APD) operates by using a reverse-biased p-n junction to create a high electric field within the depletion region. This field causes electrons to be accelerated to high energies when they are created by the absorption of photons in the photosensitive region of the diode. The accelerated electrons can then collide with other atoms or molecules in the depletion region, creating additional electron-hole pairs through impact ionization. This process is called the avalanche effect and results in a large internal gain in the photodiode. The resulting current is proportional to the amount of incident light.

How does the double heterostructure diode operate?

The double heterostructure diode operates by using two different layers of semiconductors with different band gaps. This creates a "potential well" where electrons can collect and be trapped, allowing for the diode to conduct electricity in one direction and block it in the other direction.