and sales, while transmission and distribution remained natural monopoly due to
high infrastructural costs. They were subsequently reaffirmed in 2010 by the text Loi
de Nouvelle Organisation des Marchés de l’Électricité (Loi NOME). This led to the
creation of a National Regulation Authority (NRA), the Commission de Régulation
de l’Énergie, and the split of the historical electricity operator EDF, to separate the
production and sales activity reamining in the EDF company from the transmission
and the distribution of electricity, managed by the newly created companies RTE
and Enedis (ex-Électricité Réseau Distribution France).
The EDF company started the competitive energy production market that it
now largely dominates along with ENGIE (ex-GDF Suez) and E.ON, accumulating
altogether 95% of the shares. The transmission of electricity on long distances
is ensured by Réseau de Transport d’Électricité (RTE), the French Transmission
System Operator (TSO), owner of the high-voltage network. After the electricity
voltage is decreased below 63 kV at the so-called substations, the Distribution Sys-
tem Operators (DSO) intervene. They are engaged with local authorities through
concession, maintenance and exploitation contracts for the medium and low voltage
networks to route electricity from the high voltage network to consumption sites. In
a given geographical area, electricity distribution is a natural monopoly too. The
company Enedis, 100% owned by EDF, is the largest DSO and distributes electric-
ity in 95% of the country. Local companies, the Entreprises Locales de Distribution
(ELD), are in charge of the other 5%. Finally, the company EDF is also involved
in the competitive sales market, that now counts approximatively 30 members. In
short, the suppliers propose to individual consumers connected to the medium and
low voltage networks sales and supply contracts. This organization of the electricity
system is summarized in Figure 1.1 and accompanied by a basic representation of
the largest financial and energy flows.
16
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第一章
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电力混合能源的快速演变。虽然水电在20世纪50-60年代得到了大规模发展,几乎可以
提供法国电力产量的20%[RTE,2018],但风能和太阳能直到最近才具备了经济竞争力
,得益于生产手段成本的降低,为实现低碳能源系统提供了可行的途径,法国核电站仍
然满足70%的需求。然而,可再生能源是不可控制的,难以预测的,也是致命的,因为
它们要么立即免费消耗,要么因为目前无法进行大规模储存电力而丢失。虽然可再生能
源在网络上享有法定优先权,但其他能源,即核能或化石能源,必须进行调整。将可再
生能源生产整合到法国电力系统中需要对网络进行现代化改造,这导致了智能电网的出
现。根据2015年在《关于绿色增长的能源转型法》中法定采纳的《环境格伦纳尔》设定
的雄心壮志,并得到各种金融机制的支持,可再生能源的比例应在2030年达到40%。电
力混合能源的这一重大演变由于可再生能源产量的随机性而破坏了供需平衡。为了确保
能源系统的安全性并实现宣布的经济和生态目标,必须预测和满足这两个因素,即预测
和满足需求的能力。