初次研究者指南：一步步教你做研究

Research

Guide

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"您的研究项目：初次研究人员的分步指南" 《Your Research Project：A Step-by-Step Guide for the First-Time Researcher》是尼古拉斯·S·R·沃尔曼（Nicholas S.R. Walliman）撰写的一本畅销书籍，特别针对初次进行研究的学者和学生。这本书在新版本中增加了许多新特性，同时保留了原有的优点。新特性包括对硕士生和博士生不同需求的更多阐述、研究全程时间线的全新概览、贯穿始终的学生检查清单、新增的研究伦理章节、批判性阅读技巧和文献综述的新部分，以及来自多个学科领域的实例。此外，书中还包含了一个学生词汇表，旨在帮助读者更好地理解和掌握研究过程。本书的第一章由作者 Nicholas Walliman 撰写，第二章由 Dr. Bousmaha Baiche 贡献。它强调了对版权法的尊重，允许合理使用以供研究、私人学习、批评或评论，但任何形式的复制、存储或传播都需要事先获得出版商的书面许可。对于复制超出这些条款的情况，应直接联系出版商。本书的出版商SAGE Publications在伦敦、千橡市和新德里都有分社，且该书已列入英国图书馆的出版物记录，拥有国际标准书号（ISBN）。这表明该书具有高度的学术性和专业性，可以为研究者提供全面、详尽的指导。通过阅读这本书，初次进行研究的人员将能够： 1. 了解硕士生和博士生在研究项目中的不同需求，以便选择适合自己的研究路径。 2. 理解整个研究流程，从项目构思到最终完成的全貌，有助于规划和管理研究时间。 3. 使用学生检查清单，确保每个阶段都得到充分的关注和准备，避免遗漏关键步骤。 4. 学习研究伦理，理解如何在研究中保持道德和公正，避免潜在的伦理问题。 5. 掌握批判性阅读技巧，能够更深入地理解和评估文献，从而编写出有力的文献综述。 6. 通过来自不同学科的实例，了解研究方法和策略的多样性，拓宽研究视野。 7. 利用词汇表，快速查找和理解研究领域中的专业术语。《Your Research Project》是一本详尽的指南，旨在帮助初涉研究领域的学者建立起坚实的基础，使他们能够自信地进行研究项目，并遵循最佳实践。这本书不仅提供了理论指导，还提供了实用工具和案例，是初次研究人员不可或缺的参考资料。

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Reasoning is a method of coming to conclusions by the use of logical

argument. There are three basic forms of reasoning: deductive, inductive

and a combination of both called inductive/deductive. Deductive reasoning

was first developed by the Ancient Greeks, and was refined by Aristotle

through his deductive syllogisms. An argument based on deduction begins

with general statements and, through logical argument, comes to a speciﬁc

conclusion. A syllogism is the simplest form of this kind of argument and

consists of a major general premise (statement), followed by a minor, more

speciﬁc premise, and a conclusion which follows logically. Here is a simple

example:

All live mammals breathe.

This cow is a live mammal.

Therefore, this cows breathes.

Inductive reasoning works the other way round. It starts from specific

observations and derives general conclusions therefrom. Its logical form

cannot be so neatly encapsulated in a three-line format, but a simple example

will demonstrate the line of reasoning:

All swans which have been observed are white in colour.

Therefore one can conclude that all swans are white.

The value of inductive reasoning was revealed by Bacon in the 1600s. By

careful and systematic observation of the events in the world around us, many

theories have been evolved to explain the rules of nature. Darwin’s theory

of evolution and Mendel’s discovery of genetics are perhaps the most famous

theories claimed (even by their authors) to be derived from inductive

reasoning.

However, deductive reasoning was found to be limiting because it could

only handle certain types of statement, and could become increasingly

divorced from observation and experience. Purely inductive reasoning proved

to be unwieldy and haphazard, and in practice was rarely applied to the letter.

Medawar (1969, pp. 10–11) quoted Darwin himself in his sixth edition of

Origin of Species where he wrote of himself that he ‘worked on true Baconian

principles, and without any theory collected facts on a wholesale scale’, but

later on admitted that he could not resist forming a hypothesis on every

subject.

But when inductive and deductive reasoning were combined to form

inductive/deductive reasoning, the to-and-fro process of developing

hypotheses (testable theories) inductively from observations, charting their

implications by deduction, and testing them to reﬁne or reject them in the

light of the results, formed a powerful basis for the progress of knowledge,

especially of scientiﬁc knowledge.

It is the combination of experience with deductive and inductive reasoning

which is the foundation of modern scientiﬁc research. Three characteristics

of research can be seen to distinguish it from gaining knowledge purely by

experience or reasoning:

Reasoning

RESEARCH AND THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 9

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1 Gaining experience is an uncontrolled and haphazard activity, while

research is systematic and controlled.

2 Reasoning can operate in an abstract world, divorced from reality, while

research is empirical and turns to experience and the world around us for

validation.

3 Unlike experience and reason, research aims to be self-correcting. The

process of research involves rigorously testing the results obtained, and

methods and results are open to public scrutiny and criticism.

In short:

Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be

regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth. (Cohen

and Manion, 1994, p. 5)

When we talk about this type of systematic research, it is usually assumed

that it makes use of the rigorous and questioning techniques of scientific

enquiry. This form of enquiry is called scientiﬁc method.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN RESEARCH

Scientific method is the discipline which forms the foundation of modern

scientific enquiry. It is therefore important to mention some of the main

assumptions made in this method of enquiry, and to describe some of its

major characteristics.

Scientiﬁc method has been applied, to a greater or lesser extent, to research

in some areas not principally thought of as ‘scientific’, such as sociology,

psychology and education, although some scientists question the

appropriateness of doing this. For example, Medawar writes: ‘I doubt very

much whether a methodology based on the intellectual practices of physicists

and biologists (supposing that methodology to be sound) would be of any

great use to sociologists’ (1969, p. 13).

Assumptions

According to Cohen and Manion (1994, pp. 12–16) there are five major

assumptions underlying scientiﬁc method.

The ﬁrst major assumption is the belief that there is some kind of order

in the universe, and that it is possible for us to gain some understanding of

this order. This is linked with the idea of determinism, the assumption that

events have causes, and that the links between events and causes can be

revealed. This regularity enables some predictions to be made about future

events (e.g. if gravity causes apples to fall today, it will also cause them to

fall tomorrow). Scientists do admit, however, that owing to imperfect

knowledge, predictions of varying levels of probability often result.

The second assumption is that, in order to enable us to gain this under-

standing of the world, there must be an agreement between people that

Order

10 YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT

RP01 16/10/00 3:07 pm Page 10

external reality exists, and that people recognize the same reality, a public

or shared reality. It is hardly necessary to point out that much philosophic

debate has been devoted to the nature of reality. Nevertheless, scientific

enquiry relies on the acceptance of the reliability of knowledge gained by

experience to provide empirical evidence (evidence which is verifiable by

observation) to support or refute its theories.

The third assumption is the reliability of human perception and intellect.

Despite the many ways in which our senses can be tricked, researchers depend

on their senses to record and measure their work reliably. Reasoning is an

important method of organizing data and ideas, and is regarded, if used

correctly, as a dependable tool of research. Human memory also plays a major

role in research. To avoid questioning at every single stage, some credence

must be given to the power of memory to provide reliable knowledge.

The fourth assumption is the principle of parsimony. Phenomena should

be explained in as economic a manner as possible. Needless complexity is

abhorred, and scientists aim to achieve the most elegant and simple theories.

The ﬁfth assumption is that of generality. This is the assumption that there

can be valid relationships between the particular cases investigated by the

researcher and the general situation in the world at large. It is accepted that

these relationships can be relatively unproblematical in some sciences (e.g.

chemistry and physics) but that in others, with a larger number of unknown

factors (e.g. sociology), there is a weaker chance of generality.

Characteristics of research which uses scientiﬁc method

Accepting these assumptions, research using the scientiﬁc method displays

six characteristics which distinguish it from other methods of enquiry:

1 It is generated by a question We are surrounded by unanswered questions,

unresolved problems, with conjecture and unproven beliefs. A questioning

mind is the precondition for research. Why, how, when do things happen?

What do events mean? What caused them? All these are questions which

can generate research activity. Such a question is often referred to as the

research problem.

2 It necessitates clarification of a goal Without a clear statement of the

objectives and what is intended to be done, the research cannot be

successful.

3 It entails a speciﬁc programme of work Research needs to be carefully

planned in order to achieve its objectives and reach conclusions.

4 It is aimed at increasing understanding by interpreting facts or ideas and

reaching some conclusions about their meaning The signiﬁcance of facts

or ideas depends on the way in which the intellect can extract meaning

from them.

5 It requires reasoned argument to support conclusions In order to

communicate an ordered sequence of ideas, a clear logical argument is

required.

6 It is reiterative in its activities Advances in knowledge and interpretations

External reality

Reliability

Parsimony

Generality

RESEARCH AND THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 11

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of facts are based on previous knowledge, which, in turn, is expanded by

the advances. Then resolution of research problems often gives rise to

further problems which need resolving.

In addition, research often:

• divides the principal question or problem into more practicable sub-

questions or problems. Problems are often too large or abstract to examine

as a whole. Dividing them into component parts (sub-problems) enables

them to be practically investigated.

• is tentatively guided by assertions called hypotheses (informed guesses or

tentative assertions). Testing these hypotheses provides a direction for

exploration.

• requires measurable data in attempting to answer the question which

initiated the research.

EXERCISE 1.1

1 Without looking back in the text, can you list ﬁve major assumptions which underlie

scientiﬁc method?

2 Examine the following texts, which were written by researchers to describe their

research subjects, and decide whether they contain any of the characteristics of

research using scientiﬁc method. If you can ﬁnd them in the texts, summarize in a

few words the following:

(a) the main question or problem

(b) the main goal or objectives of the research

(d) the main conclusion(s)

(e) the main argument followed.

Was the text clearly written, making the characteristics (a)–(e) easy to ﬁnd, or did

you have to search carefully to ﬁnd them amongst all the words? Brieﬂy describe

the difﬁculties, if you experienced any.

Note: references in texts are not included in the reference list at the end of the

book.

Text 1 (based on Mikellides, 1990, pp. 3–18)

We need light to see around us and colour to add beauty to our lives. The effect on

us of light, however, goes beyond our everyday assumptions and expectations. Rikard

Kuller, in his Annotated Bibliography, listed 1700 references on the psychophysiological

effects of light. In both scientiﬁc and aesthetic accounts, colours have been classiﬁed

according to their purported effects on humans. Hues such as orange, red and yellow

are seen to be exciting and stimulating, while blue, turquoise and green are regarded

as calming and relaxing.

12 YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT

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To counter criticism of these views, Robert Gerard showed in his studies in 1958

that the different effects of blue and red on the organism could be measured by changes

in the central and automatic nervous systems. Ali, in 1972, supported these ﬁndings

by demonstrating differing levels of cortical arousal following the shining of blue and

red light directly into the eyes of ten normal subjects for six minutes. A different

approach taken by Lars Sivik (1970) demonstrated, using photo-simulation techniques,

that chromatic strength rather than hue affects the exciting or calming properties of

a colour. Kuller (1972) using full-scale spaces showed that strong and weak colours

appeared exciting and calming respectively.

The approaches of these four studies were very different. The first and second

used physiological measures using coloured light whilst the other two used semantic

differential analysis using pigments as the colour stimulation. The ﬁrst two showed

pure coloured light in a laboratory setting, the second two colour in the context of

indoor and outdoor settings. This study aims to bridge the gap between these sets of

experiments. Surface pigments in real environments were used, with long exposure

periods, using alpha rhythms recorded on EEG and EKG recordings to assess the level

of arousal. The objective of the setting was to make a closer simulation of the real-life

experience of the subjects.

Twenty-four subjects were exposed to four conditions in a room-sized environment:

a completely red visual ﬁeld, a completely blue visual ﬁeld, a visual ﬁeld with the left

part blue and the right part red, and vice versa, each for twenty minutes. The measures

of chromatic strength and lightness of the blue and red were identical. The data

collected were analysed by means of several analyses of variance.

The most notable result of this study was that the central nervous system showed

no signiﬁcant differences when red and blue spaces were experienced. These results

support, by the addition of conﬁrming physiological data, Sivik’s and Kuller’s ﬁndings

that, chromatic strength and lightness being controlled, colour hues do not affect

excitement. This information will have important implications for design, as it contradicts

the guidance given in design manuals.

Text 2 (based on Freese et al., 1999, p. 207)

The lasting inﬂuences of a person’s position in the order of birth in a family have been

the subject of an extended and heated discussion in sociology and other disciplines.

In response to Sulloway’s (1996) Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and

Creative Lives, there has been an increase in interest in the likely influences of the

order of birth on social attitudes. In comparison with the variables of gender, class or

race, Sulloway found, through the use of quantitative and historical data, that birth

order is a better predictor of social attitudes. His original theory attests that the inﬂuence

of the order of birth is pervasive across time and society.

This study uses current data to test Sulloway’s assertion that adults who were born

the ﬁrst in families are more authoritative and conservative and less subtle than those

born later. Taking 24 measures of social attitudes from the General Social Survey (GSS),

an examination of cases resulted in no evidence to support these assertions, neither

in terms of significant effects nor even in terms of the direction of non-significant

coefﬁcients. As a result of further research, it was found that comparable results were

obtained using all (202) relevant attitudinal items on the GSS yields.

As a result, it was concluded that variables rejected by Sulloway, such as family

size, race, gender and social class, were all more strongly linked to social attitudes

than was the order of birth. Therefore it can be inferred that theories relating to the

RESEARCH AND THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 13

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