REINFORCEMENT THEORY AS A BASIS FOR CLINICAL
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
MERLE
L.
MEACHAM
University
of
Washington
In recent years we have had considerable debate around the eficacy and nature
of psychotherapy and counseling. For the purpose of this paper, we need not dis-
tinguish between them (if indeed this can be done), but indicate that this has re-
levance for our role since this is one of the kinds of environmental modifications that
school psychologists become involved in. Several writers have challenged the tradi-
tional concept of psychotherapy as the treatment of some underlying disease (Mich-
ael
&
Meyerson,
1962;
Krumboltz
&
Schroeder,
1965;
Krumbolta,
1965;
Illman
&
Krasner,
1965;
and Krumboltz,
1966).
They have argued that a behavioral ap-
proach to psychotherapy or counseling which deals with behavioral goals and not
with disease entities is not only effective for many kinds of behavior disorders, but
may avoid the problem of reinforcing undesirable behavior. With reference to the
latter,
I
am speaking of the effects of catharsis as reported by Bandura
(1965)
in
which he says, “The over-all evidence from laboratory studies strongly suggests
that psychotherapies employing ‘abreaction’ procedures may be unwittingly main-
taining deviant behavior at its original strength
or
actually increasing it, rather than
producing the expected cathartic reductions in response strength.’’ He then goes
on to report effective changes in aggressive behavior in children when the socially
acceptable behavior is seen
as
reinforced and aggressive responses are seen as punish-
ed. Grossberg
(1964)
made an extensive review of the literature on behavior therapy
and concluded that not only has
it
been effective for many kinds
of
disorders (pho-
bias, anxiety reactions, enuresis, stuttering and tics; although less
so
with alcoholism
and sexual disorders)
,
but also that the behavior modifications were long lasting and
there was little or no evidence of symptom substitution as would be predicted by the
illness model. Indeed, Ullman and Krasner
(1965)
can find little evidence of symp-
tom substitution and suggest that where
it
seems to be found the behavior can still
be explained in a more parsimonious manner than the illness model.
I
feel that the significant point for the school psychologist is that he is in an
excellent position to control environmental variables and to deal directly with the
behaviors of children.
If
we think of the behavioral manifestations as learned and
subject to modification through learning techniques, then we are in an enviable posi-
tion to help youngsters since such a significant segment of their behavior is available
for analysis and modification. Further, we are dealing with learning and in learning
terms, something with which school staffs are familiar and inclined to be cooperative.
I
am also inclined to speculate that parents would be more cooperative
if
our dis-
cussions were oriented around teaching the child new behavior rather than family
dynamics. But whatever the youngster’s difficulty out of school, we would not be
able to use that as an excuse for lack of effort
or
success in school. For our primary
task would be to teach him to discriminate the behavior appropriate for school and
hope that
it
would generalize to home and the community. In this sense it seems to
me that the behavioral model is as optimistic
as
it is effective.
In line with this thinking there have been a number of reports of effective use
of behavioral techniques with school oriented problems. Zimmerman and Zimmer-
man
(1962)
report the elimination of unproductive classroom behavior (tantrums,
irrelevant verbal behavior and baby talk) in two emotionally disturbed boys by