《Kubernetes网络深度指南：多层架构部署与故障排查》

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Figure 1-1. Barrett Lyon, “Mapping the Internet,” 2003

Table 1-1 briefly outlines the history of networking before we dive into a few of the

important details.

Table 1-1. A brief history of networking

Year Event

1969 ARPANET’s rst connection test

1969 Telnet 1969 Request for Comments (RFC) 15 drafted

1971 FTP RFC 114 drafted

1973 FTP RFC 354 drafted

1974 TCP RFC 675 by Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine drafted

1980 Development of Open Systems Interconnection model begins

1981 IP RFC 760 drafted

1982 NORSAR and University College London left the ARPANET and began using TCP/IP over SATNET

1984 ISO 7498 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model published

1991 National Information Infrastructure (NII) Bill passed with Al Gore’s help

1991 First version of Linux released

2015 First version of Kubernetes released

2 | Chapter 1: Networking Introduction

In its earliest forms, networking was government run or sponsored; in the United

States, the Department of Defense (DOD) sponsored the Advanced Research Projects

Agency Network (ARPANET), well before Al Gore’s time in politics, which will be

relevant in a moment. In 1969, ARPANET was deployed at the University of Califor‐

nia–Los Angeles, the Augmentation Research Center at Stanford Research Institute,

the University of California–Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah School of

Computing. Communication between these nodes was not completed until 1970,

when they began using the Network Control Protocol (NCP). NCP led to the devel‐

opment and use of the first computer-to-computer protocols like Telnet and File

Transfer Protocol (FTP).

The success of ARPANET and NCP, the first protocol to power ARPANET, led to

NCP’s downfall. It could not keep up with the demands of the network and the vari‐

ety of networks connected. In 1974, Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine began

drafting RFC 675 for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). (You’ll learn more about

RFCs in a few paragraphs.) TCP would go on to become the standard for network

connectivity. TCP allowed for exchanging packets across different types of networks.

In 1981, the Internet Protocol (IP), defined in RFC 791, helped break out the respon‐

sibilities of TCP into a separate protocol, increasing the modularity of the network. In

the following years, many organizations, including the DOD, adopted TCP as the

standard. By January 1983, TCP/IP had become the only approved protocol on

ARPANET, replacing the earlier NCP because of its versatility and modularity.

A competing standards organization, the International Organization for Standardiza‐

tion (ISO), developed and published ISO 7498, “Open Systems Interconnection Ref‐

erence Model,” which detailed the OSI model. With its publication also came the

protocols to support it. Unfortunately, the OSI model protocols never gained traction

and lost out to the popularity of TCP/IP. The OSI model is still an excellent learning

tool for understanding the layered approach to networking, however.

In 1991, Al Gore invented the internet (well, really he helped pass the National Infor‐

mation Infrastructure [NII] Bill), which helped lead to the creation of the Internet

Engineering Task Force (IETF). Nowadays standards for the internet are under the

management of the IETF, an open consortium of leading experts and companies in

the field of networking, like Cisco and Juniper. RFCs are published by the Internet

Society and the Internet Engineering Task Force. RFCs are prominently authored by

individuals or groups of engineers and computer scientists, and they detail their pro‐

cesses, operations, and applications for the internet’s functioning.

Networking History | 3

Network layer PDU is the packet. Packets are distinct pieces of data routed between

networks. The Data Link layer is the frame or segment. Each packet is broken up into

frames, checked for errors, and sent out on the local network. The Physical layer

transmits the frame in bits over the medium. Next we will outline each layer in detail:

Application

The Application layer is the top layer of the OSI model and is the one the end

user interacts with every day. This layer is not where actual applications live, but

it provides the interface for applications that use it like a web browser or Office

365. The single biggest interface is HTTP; you are probably reading this book on

a web page hosted by an O’Reilly web server. Other examples of the Application

layer that we use daily are DNS, SSH, and SMTP. Those applications are respon‐

sible for displaying and arranging data requested and sent over the network.

Presentation

This layer provides independence from data representation by translating

between application and network formats. It can be referred to as the syntax

layer. This layer allows two systems to use different encodings for data and still

pass data between them. Encryption is also done at this layer, but that is a more

complicated story we’ll save for “TLS” on page 25.

Session

The Session layer is responsible for the duplex of the connection, in other words,

whether sending and receiving data at the same time. It also establishes proce‐

dures for performing checkpointing, suspending, restarting, and terminating a

session. It builds, manages, and terminates the connections between the local and

remote applications.

Transport

The Transport layer transfers data between applications, providing reliable data

transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport layer controls a given connec‐

tion’s reliability through flow control, segmentation and desegmentation, and

error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This layer

tracks the segments and retransmits those that fail. It also provides the acknowl‐

edgment of successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors

occurred. TCP/IP has two protocols at this layer: TCP and User Datagram

Protocol (UDP).

Network

The Network layer implements a means of transferring variable-length data flows

from a host on one network to a host on another network while sustaining

service quality. The Network layer performs routing functions and might also

perform fragmentation and reassembly while reporting delivery errors. Routers

operate at this layer, sending data throughout the neighboring networks. Several

6 | Chapter 1: Networking Introduction

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《Kubernetes网络深度指南：多层架构部署与故障排查》

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job for networking.service failed because the control process exited with error code. see "systemctl status networking.service" and "journalctl -xeu networking.service" for details.

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Unit networking.service could not be found.

Failed to restart networking.service: Unit networking.service not found.按照上述教程，报如上错误

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