《嵌入式操作系统实践》：64位技术与现代应用

操作系统

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《嵌入式操作系统实践》是一本实用指南，由Alan Holt和Chi-Yu Huang共同编著，第二版于2018年发行，隶属于Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science系列。本书主要针对嵌入式系统的开发人员，深入探讨了嵌入式操作系统的实现原理和方法，具有很高的工程实际价值。在第一版出版后，随着技术的发展，64位桌面和笔记本电脑已经普及，这与本书初版时的情况不同。尽管现在有针对嵌入式平台的64位架构，但32位（甚至更低位）的设备仍然是主流。因此，作者指出，现在的开发者需要在64位主机上进行跨平台编译，以便支持32位目标系统。这种技术迁移增加了开发者的挑战，也反映了行业对于适应不断演进的技术环境的需求。书中内容涵盖了以下关键知识点： 1. **嵌入式操作系统基础**：介绍了嵌入式系统的概念，包括其定义、特点和应用领域，如工业控制、物联网、移动设备等。 2. **体系结构理解**：讨论了32位和64位架构的区别，以及如何根据不同平台选择合适的硬件和软件栈。 3. **编译器与工具链**：阐述了如何在64位主机上构建针对32位目标的交叉编译环境，这对于移植代码和优化性能至关重要。 4. **实时性和资源管理**：嵌入式系统对实时性有严格要求，书中会讲解内存管理、任务调度和中断处理等关键部分。 5. **安全与可靠性**：随着物联网的发展，安全问题变得尤为重要，书中会涉及安全机制设计和故障恢复策略。 6. **实战案例分析**：通过实际项目的例子，展示如何将理论知识应用于实际嵌入式系统开发，包括硬件接口、驱动程序编写和系统集成。 7. **更新与趋势**：介绍了自第一版以来操作系统和技术发展中的新趋势，如RTOS（实时操作系统）、微服务架构和物联网设备的操作系统设计。《嵌入式操作系统实践》不仅是开发者的工具书，也是教学和研究的重要资源，帮助读者掌握从设计到实施的完整流程，并应对不断变化的技术挑战。无论是初学者还是经验丰富的工程师，都能从中获得宝贵的实践经验。

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1.2 Overview of Embedded Systems 5

devices. Nor are we concerned with the processing of multimedia such as audio and

video. We accept that consumer electronics systems, which are considered to be

embedded systems, do support sophisticated GUIs (touch screens, for example) and

multimedia, nevertheless, these components are outside the scope of this book.

We complete this section with a list of (typical) embedded system applications.

This is by no means an exhaustive list but gives some idea of the scope of the subject

area:

• Consumer electronics: cameras, mobile phones portable gaming consoles, satellite

navigation and GPS handsets.

• Automotive electronics: cruise control and navigation.

• Communications equipment: base stations, network routers and wireless access-

points.

• Factory automation equipment: robots, sensor and inventory control systems

• Ofﬁce automation equipment: scanners, photocopiers and printers.

• Home automation: security systems, temperature control smart meters.

1.3 Brief History of Linux and GNU

Linux is a Unix-like operating system developed by Linus Torvalds. To understand

the origins of Linux, we present a brief history of the Unix operating system and

some of its derivatives.

Unix was developed in 1969 by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and Douglas

McIlroy at AT&T Bell Laboratories. Unix is a multi-user, time-sharing operating

system. It was ﬁrst developed for medium-sized computers, but has been ported to

personal computers and super computers. The reason that Unix was so portable,

was that it was developed in a machine independent language. Typically, the devel-

opment of an operating system was tightly coupled to the computer system it was

designed for. This was because operating systems were written in machine depen-

dent languages (assembler or machine code). While the ﬁrst versions of Unix were

developed in assembler, later versions were developed in the high-level language

C[2] (also conceived by the Bell Laboratories). Unix System III was released in

1982, followed by Unix System V in 1983 which AT&T was able to market after its

divestiture.

BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution) Unix was developed by the Computer Sys-

tems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley. The initial

BSD Unix was an augmentation of the Bell Labs Unix. There have been a number of

Unix-derivatives based on BSD. For example, SunOS from Sun Microsystems is a

version of BSD Unix (one of the co-founders of Sun, Bill Joy was a BSD developer).

Later, SunOS was re-branded as Solaris and was based on System V Release 4 (see

below).

As Unix matured, CSRG no longer considered BSD Unix a research interest and

terminated its development. A number of Unix-like, open-source operating systems

6 1 Introduction

descended from BSD, namely, FreeBSD [3,4], NetBSD, and OpenBSD [5]. Darwin,

the macOS kernel, is based on the Mach kernel and is derived from the BSD imple-

mentation of Unix in Nextstep. Nextstep was the object-oriented operating system

developed by Steve Jobs when he was at NeXT after leaving Apple in 1985.

In 1987, AT&T (in collaboration with Sun Microsystems) merged System V

release 3, BSD and Xenix to form System V Release 4 (SVR4).

Attempts to standardise Unix in the late 80 s and early 90 s gave rise to the Unix

wars. This adversely affected its acceptance in the market. The alliance between

AT&T and Sun Microsystems concerned many other Unix vendors. This gave rise to

two opposing factions, the X/Open consortium and OSF (Open System Foundation).

In 1991, AT&T “spun off” its Unix System Laboratories (USL) and Unix when it

sold the Unix operating system. The following year, the Novell Corporation signed

a letter of intent to purchase USL and Unix. The transaction was completed in 1993.

The same year, Novell sold its entire Unix business to the Santa Cruz Operation

(SCO).

The GNU (GNU is Not Unix) project was initiated by Richard Stallman to pro-

duce a free Unix-like operating system. The intended kernel for the GNU system was

the Hurd kernel. Hurd stands for “HIRD of Unix-Replacing Daemons” and HIRD

stands for HURD of Interfaces Representing Depth. Despite the wealth on recursive

(and circular) acronyms, HURD never became the GNU kernel due to its slow devel-

opment. The BSD kernel was considered GNU but was ruled out due to the AT&T

lawsuit against BDSI.

Minix is a Unix-like operating system developed by Andrew S. Tanenbaum.

Tanenbaum developed Minux for educational purposes. Released under the BSD

license, Minix is free and open source software. It was Minix that largely inspired

Linus Torvalds to develop the Linux kernel. Linux was initially released under Tor-

valds’ own license but later it was released under GNU General Public License.

Making the Linux source code available to the wider community meant others could

contribute to its development. Development of the GNU software was also required

to integrate it with the Linux Kernel. GNU/Linux operating systems are disseminated

as distributions. Table 1.1 shows some of the popular distributions in use to today.

1.4 GNU/Linux as an Embedded Operating System

GNU/Linux was not developed speciﬁcally for the embedded system market but,

given that it can easily be customised, it is well suited to embedded projects. There

are a number of advantages to using GNU/Linux as an operating system for embedded

systems:

• GNU/Linux is open source, therefore, there are no licence fees.

• The software is fairly mature and stable.

• There is a large community of developers.

• Access to the source code means that modiﬁcations can be made to suit the appli-

cation.

1.4 GNU/Linux as an Embedded Operating System 7

Table 1.1 GNU/Linux distributions

Name Root Provider Comment

Debian – The Debian project

Fedora – Community Red Hat sponsored

Slackware – Slackware The oldest distribution

openSuse – Suse

Gentoo Linux – Gentoo Foundation Source based

distribution

Chrome OS Gentoo Google Google’s commercial

Linux

Red Hat Enterprise Linux Fedora Red Hat

Oracle Linux Fedora/RHEL Oracle

Ubuntu Debian Canonical

Mint Debian/Ubuntu Community

Centos RHEL Community

Enterprise O/S

There are some disadvantages of course. The Linux kernel is large and complex as

it is designed, primarily, for multi-user, timesharing environments. The kernel also

lacks support for real-time which is a requirement of some embedded applications.

There are a couple of solutions to this limitation. There are a number of patches

(such as PREEMPT-RT) which enable real-time support within the Linux kernel.

Also, there is RTLinux which is an RTOS microkernel that runs the Linux kernel as

a pre-emptive process.

The current Linux kernel is designed to work with a memory management unit

(MMU) which many embedded platforms lack. µCLinux is a Linux kernel fork

designed to work with processors which do not have an MMU. There are a number

of GNU/Linux distributions speciﬁcally designed for embedded systems, a few are

listed below:

Openwrt: Linksys used ﬁrmware for the WRT54G series of routers based upon

code that was licensed under GPL (GNU public license). Linksys, therefore,

had to release their modiﬁed code, enabling community developers to produce

new versions of the ﬁrmware. The Openwrt project originated from the initial

development. Openwrt supports a wide variety of process architectures. It uses

the ipkg package management system. We discuss Openwrt in more detail in

Chap. 9.

LEDE: Linux embedded development environment (LEDE) is a fork of Openwrt.

Arch Linux: The Arch Linux distribution is primarily for i686 and x86-64 archi-

tectures but there is also a distribution for ARM processors. It uses the pacman

for package management, which was developed speciﬁcally for Arch Linux.

8 1 Introduction

Angstrom: The Angstrom distribution supports a variety of embedded devices. The

distribution derives from a number of projects, namely, OpenZaurus, OpenEm-

bedded, and OpenSIMpad. Angstrom is used on the BeagleBone and BeagleBoard

platforms. The package management system for Angstorm is opkg.

Android: Android is designed for tablets and smart phones. It was developed by

Google and the Open Handset Alliance.

1.5 Conventions Used in This Book

We use a GNU/Linux platform throughout this book, namely, Ubuntu 16.04. In

computing literature it is conventional to use the term “Linux” to refer to the operating

system. Linux, however, is only kernel. The rest of the operating software (or most

of it at least) is GNU. We use the term GNU/Linux in recognition of both the kernel

developers and the developers of other essential components of the operating system.

Sometimes we use the term “Unix” when referring to a feature that is common to all

Unix and Unix-like operating systems such as GNU/Linux. We use the term “Linux”

to refer to the entire operating system (rather than just the kernel) only when it is

used that way by others.

Most of the examples are performed on a general purpose Intel 386 based plat-

form running Ubuntu 16.04 LTS. We use a number of technologies, such as Linux

containers and virtual machine, in order to ensure commonality between reader and

author environments.

Some examples are performed on actual embedded GNU/Linux systems. Often,

this necessitates running commands on both an embedded system and a host machine.

We even run commands in virtual machines, Docker containers and Linux names-

paces. The text explains which commands are run on which platform but, in order to

make it clear, we use different command-line prompts to distinguish between them.

A single dollar sign, $ is used to denote the command-line for a general host machine.

The $ also means that commands are run as a regular user. If the prompt is a # then

commands are run as superuser. Commands are seldom run while logged in to the

superuser account, instead we use the sudo utility when we need to run commands

with superuser privileges.

Most of the examples given in this book are from the GNU/Linux command-

line. Throughout we assume Bash as the default shell. Input to and output from

the command-line is in a monospaced font. The example below shows the date

command entered at the command-line prompt ($). Below this line is the output of

the command:

$ date

Mon Sep 9 14:36:51 BST 2013

1.5 Conventions Used in This Book 9

Names of ﬁles (including absolute and relative pathnames) are highlighted in italic,

/etc/hostname, for example.

1.6 Book Outline

This book is organised as follows:

Chapter 2: Overview of GNU/Linux. In this chapter we give a brief overview of

the GNU/Linux system. We introduce the components of the system, such as the

bootloader, kernel and ﬁlesystem. We also cover process management, process

input/output and the process environment.

Chapter 3: Containers. In this chapter we look at containers and the underlying

kernel technology upon which they are based. There are a number of Linux con-

tainer systems but we conﬁne our discussion to Docker. We use Docker in later

chapters to build and test embedded system software.

Chapter 4: The Filesystem. Access to persistent storage is supported through the

ﬁlesystem. GNU/Linux supports many ﬁlesystem types by using a virtual ﬁlesys-

tem (VFS). In this chapter we discuss GNU/Linux ﬁlesystems in detail.

Chapter 5: Building an Embedded System (ﬁrst pass). In this chapter we describe

how to build an embedded system using the debootstrap utility. We build the

system to run under a virtual machine. The virtualisation technology we use is

user mode Linux (UML).

Chapter 6: Building an Embedded System (second pass). We build an embedded

system to run natively on an actual processor. We build all the system components

from the source code, including the kernel, bootloader, shared libraries and Unix

utilities. We also create the boot scripts and system conﬁguration ﬁles.

Chapter 7: Compiler Toolchains. In this chapter we introduce the concept of the

compiler toolchain (or just toolchain). Compilers translate instructions from a

high-level programming language into machine dependent binary executable’

code. The “compiler” is rarely a single program, but rather a suite of programs,

hence a toolchain. Embedded devices are, typically, low in CPU and memory,

thus, running compiler toolchains on the actual target can be impractical. For this

reason, cross compiler toolchains are required to build software for a particular

target architecture but run on a platform of a different architecture.

Chapter 8: Embedded ARM Devices. In this chapter we look at two ARM based

platforms: BeagleBone and Raspberry Pi. The BeagleBone and BeagleBone Black

are part of the BeagleBoard series of single-board computers produced by Texas

Instruments and Digi-Key. They are aimed at the educational and hobbiest market.

The BeagleBones are shipped with the Angstrom GNU/Linux distribution.

The Raspberry Pi was designed as inexpensive PC and aimed at the educational

market but its small form factor makes it ideal for embedded system use. The

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