遥感技术在土地资源监测、建模与地图绘制中的应用

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"这是一本关于使用遥感技术进行土地资源监测、建模和地图制作的专业书籍，名为《REMOTE SENSING HANDBOOK (VOLUME II) - LAND RESOURCES MONITORING, MODELING, AND MAPPING WITH REMOTE SENSING》。由Prasad S. Than kabail博士编辑，由Taylor & Francis Group, LLC出版。本书是远程感应手册系列的第二卷，涵盖了遥感数据的特性、分类和准确性，以及土地资源的监测、建模和映射，还涉及水资源、灾害和城市研究。" 在现代信息技术和地理信息系统（GIS）领域，遥感技术扮演着至关重要的角色，特别是在土地资源管理方面。这本书深入探讨了以下几个关键知识点： 1. **遥感数据特性**：遥感数据是通过卫星或航空平台上的传感器收集的，可以提供地球表面的多光谱、多时相和高分辨率图像。这些数据用于分析地表特征，如植被覆盖、土壤湿度、土地利用类型等。 2. **数据分类与准确性**：遥感图像处理包括图像分类，用于识别和区分不同的地物，如森林、农田、水体等。书中会讨论各种分类方法，如监督分类、非监督分类以及它们的准确度评估。 3. **土地资源监测**：遥感技术能够定期、大范围地监测土地变化，例如森林砍伐、沙漠化、城市扩张等。这对于环境管理和可持续发展至关重要。 4. **模型构建**：通过遥感数据，可以建立土地覆盖变化模型、生态系统模型，用于预测未来土地利用趋势，支持决策制定。 5. **地理空间建模与映射**：利用遥感信息，可以创建高精度的土地覆盖图和地形模型，帮助规划者和管理者理解土地资源的分布和状态。 6. **水资源和灾害监测**：遥感在水文研究和灾害响应中也起着关键作用，比如洪水监测、干旱评估和地震后的损害评估。 7. **城市研究**：遥感技术应用于城市规划和管理，可以追踪城市扩展，评估建筑密度，甚至分析交通流量和热岛效应。这本书是遥感和地理信息科学领域的宝贵资源，对于研究人员、政策制定者和实践者来说，它提供了理论知识和实际应用的综合指南，以有效地利用遥感技术进行土地资源管理。

xvii

e overarching goal of the Remote Sensing Handbook

(Remotely Sensed Data Characterization, Classication,

and Accuracies; Land Resources Monitoring, Modeling, and

Mapping with Remote Sensing; and Remote Sensing of Water

Resources, Disasters, and Urban Studies), with 82 chapters

and about 2500 pages, was to capture and provide the most

comprehensive state of the art of remote sensing science and

technology development and advancement in the last 50years,

by clearly demonstrating the (1) scientic advances, (2) meth-

odological advances, and (3) societal benets achieved during

this period, as well as to provide a vision of what is to come in

the years ahead. e three books are, to date and to the best of

my knowledge, the most comprehensive documentation of the

scientic and methodological advances that have taken place in

understanding remote sensing data, methods, and a wide array

of land and water applications. Written by 300+ leading global

experts in the area, each chapter (1) focuses on a specic topic

(e.g., data, methods, and applications), (2) reviews the existing

state-of-the-art knowledge, (3) highlights the advances made,

and (4) provides guidance for areas requiring future devel-

opment. Chapters in the books cover a wide array of subject

matter of remote sensing applications. e Remote Sensing

Handbook is planned as a reference material for remote sens-

ing scientists, land and water resource practitioners, natural

and environmental practitioners, professors, students, and

decision makers. e special features of the Remote Sensing

Handbook include the following:

1. Participation of an outstanding group of remote sensing

experts, an unparalleled team of writers for such a book

project

2. Exhaustive coverage of a wide array of remote sensing

science: data, methods, and applications

3. Each chapter being led by a luminary and most chapters

written by teams who further enriched the chapters

4. Broadening the scope of the book to make it ideal for

expert practitioners as well as students

5. Global team of writers, global geographic coverage of

study areas, and a wide array of satellites and sensors

6. Plenty of color illustrations

Chapters in the books cover the following aspects of remote

sensing:

State of the art

Methods and techniques

Wide array of land and water applications

Scientic achievements and advancements over the last

50years

Societal benets

Knowledge gaps

Future possibilities in the twenty-rst century

Great advances have taken place over the last 50 years using

remote sensing in the study of the planet Earth, especially using

data gathered from a multitude of Earth observation (EO) satel-

lites launched by various governments as well as private enti-

ties. A large part of the initial remote sensing technology was

developed and tested during the two world wars. In the 1950s,

remote sensing slowly began its foray into civilian applications.

During the years of the Cold War, remote sensing applications,

both civilian and military, increased swily. But it was also

an age when remote sensing was the domain of a very few top

experts and major national institutes, having multiple skills in

engineering, science, and computer technology. From the 1960s

onward, there have been many governmental agencies that have

initiated civilian remote sensing. e National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA) and the United States Geological

Survey (USGS) have been in the forefront of many of these eorts.

Others who have provided leadership in civilian remote sensing

include, but are not limited to, the European Space Agency (ESA)

of the European Union, the Indian Space Research Organization

(ISRO), the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES) of

France, the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), the Japan Aerospace

Exploration Agency (JAXA), the German Aerospace Center

(DLR), the China National Space Administration (CNSA),

Preface: Remote Sensing

Advances of the Last 50Years

and a Vision for the Future

xviii Preface

the United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA), and the Instituto

Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE) of Brazil. Many private

entities have launched and operated satellites. ese government

and private agencies and enterprises launched and operated a

wide array of satellites and sensors that captured the data of the

planet Earth in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

and in various spatial, radiometric, and temporal resolutions,

routinely and repeatedly. However, the real thrust for remote

sensing advancement came during the last decade of the twenti-

eth century and the beginning of the twenty-rst century. ese

initiatives included a launch of a series of new-generation EO

satellites to gather data more frequently and routinely, release

of pathnder data sets, web enabling the data for free by many

agencies (e.g., USGS release of the entire Landsat archives as

well as real-time acquisitions of the world for free dissemina-

tion by web-enabling), and providing processed data ready to

users (e.g., surface reectance products of moderate-resolution

imaging spectroradiometer [MODIS]). Other eorts like Google

Earth made remote sensing more popular and brought in a new

platform for easy visualization and navigation of remote sens-

ing data. Advances in computer hardware and soware made it

possible to handle Big Data. Crowdsourcing, web access, cloud

computing, and mobile platforms added a new dimension to

how remote sensing data are used. Integration with global posi-

tioning systems (GPS) and global navigation satellite systems

(GNSS) and inclusion of digital secondary data (e.g., digital

elevation, precipitation, temperature) in analysis have made

remote sensing much more powerful. Collectively, these initia-

tives provided a new vision in making remote sensing data more

popular, widely understood, and increasingly used for diverse

applications, hitherto considered dicult. e free availability

of archival data when combined with more recent acquisitions

has also enabled quantitative studies of change over space and

time. e Remote Sensing Handbook is targeted to capture these

vast advances in data, methods, and applications, so a remote

sensing student, scientist, or a professional practitioner will have

the most comprehensive, all-encompassing reference material in

one place.

Modern-day remote sensing technology, science, and appli-

cations are growing exponentially. is growth is a result of a

combination of factors that include (1) advances and innova-

tions in data capture, access, and delivery (e.g., web enabling,

cloud computing, crowdsourcing); (2) an increasing number of

satellites and sensors gathering data of the planet, repeatedly

and routinely, in various portions of the electromagnetic spec-

trum as well as in an array of spatial, radiometric, and temporal

resolutions; (3) eorts at integrating data from multiple satel-

lites and sensors (e.g., sentinels with Landsat); (4) advances in

data normalization, standardization, and harmonization (e.g.,

delivery of data in surface reectance, intersensor calibration);

(5) methods and techniques for handling very large data vol-

umes (e.g., global mosaics); (6) quantum leap in computer hard-

ware and soware capabilities (e.g., ability to process several

terabytes of data); (7) innovation in methods, approaches, and

techniques leading to sophisticated algorithms (e.g., spectral

matching techniques, and automated cropland classication

algorithms); and (8) development of new spectral indices to

quantify and study specic land and water parameters (e.g.,

hyperspectral vegetation indices or HVIs). As a result of these

all-around developments, remote sensing science is today very

mature and is widely used in virtually every discipline of the

earth sciences for quantifying, mapping, modeling, and moni-

toring our planet Earth. Such rapid advances are captured in a

number of remote sensing and earth science journals. However,

students, scientists, and practitioners of remote sensing science

and applications have signicant diculty gathering a complete

understanding of the various developments and advances that

have taken place as a result of their vastness spread across the

last 50 years. erefore, the chapters in the Remote Sensing

Handbook are designed to give a whole picture of scientic and

technological advances of the last 50years.

Today, the science, art, and technology of remote sensing are

truly ubiquitous and increasingly part of everyone’s everyday

life, oen without the user knowing it. Whether looking at your

own home or farm (e.g., see the following gure), helping you

navigate when you drive, visualizing a phenomenon occurring

in a distant part of the world (e.g., see the following gure), mon-

itoring events such as droughts and oods, reporting weather,

detecting and monitoring troop movements or nuclear sites,

studying deforestation, assessing biomass carbon, addressing

disasters such as earthquakes or tsunamis, and a host of other

applications (e.g., precision farming, crop productivity, water

productivity, deforestation, desertication, water resources

management), remote sensing plays a pivotal role. Already,

many new innovations are taking place. Companies such as

the Planet Labs and Skybox are planning to capture very-high-

spatial- resolution imagery (typically, sub-meter to 5 meters),

even videos from space using a large number of microsatellite

constellations. ere are others planning to launch a constella-

tion of hyperspectral or other sensors. Just as the smartphone

and social media connected the world, remote sensing is making

the world our backyard. No place goes unobserved and no event

gets reported without a satellite or other kinds of remote sensing

images or their derivatives. is is how true liberation for any

technology and science occurs.

Google Earth can be used to seamlessly navigate and

precisely locate any place on Earth, oen with very-high-

spatial-resolution data (VHRI; submeters to 5 m) from satel-

lites such as IKONOS, QuickBird, and GeoEye (Note: the image

below is from one of the VHRI). Here, the editor-in-chief (EiC)

of this handbook located his village home (enkabail) and

surroundings that have land covers such as secondary rain-

forests, lowland paddy farms, areca nut plantations, coconut

plantations, minor roads, walking routes, open grazing lands,

and minor streams (typically, rst and second order) (note: land

cover detailed is based on the ground knowledge of the EiC).

e rst primary school attended by him is located precisely.

Precise coordinates (13 degree 45 minutes 39.22 seconds north-

ern latitude, 75 degrees 06 minutes 56.03 seconds eastern lon-

gitude) of enkabail’s village house on the planet and the date

xixPreface

of image acquisition (March 1, 2014) are noted. Google Earth

images are used for visualization as well as for numerous sci-

ence applications such as accuracy assessment, reconnaissance,

determining land cover, and establishing land use for various

ground surveys. It is widely used by lay people who oen have

no idea on how it all comes together but understand the infor-

mation provided intuitively. is is already happening. ese

developments make it clear that we not only need to understand

the state of the art but also have a vision of where the future of

remote sensing is headed. erefore, in a nutshell, the goal of

this handbook is to cover the developments and advancement of

six distinct eras in terms of data characterization and process-

ing as well as myriad land and water applications:

1. Pre–civilian remote sensing era of the pre-1950s: World

War I and II when remote sensing was a military tool

2. Technology demonstration era of the 1950s and 1960s:

Sputnik-I and NOAA AVHRR era of the 1950s and 1960s

3. Landsat era of the 1970s: when the rst truly operational

land remote sensing satellite (Earth Resources Technology

Satellite or ERTS, later renamed Landsat) was launched and

operated in the 1970s and early 1980s by United States

4. Earth observation era of the 1980s and 1990s: when a num-

ber of space agencies began launching and operating satellites

(e.g., Landsat 4,5 by the United States; SPOT-1,2 by France;

IRS-1a, 1b by India) from the middle to late 1980s onward till

the middle of 1990s

5. Earth observation and the rst decade of the New Millennium

era of the 2000s: when data dissemination to users became as

important as launching, operating, and capturing data (e.g.,

MODIS Terra\Aqua, Landsat-8, Resourcesat) in the late 1990

and the rst decade of the 2000s

6. Second decade of the New Millennium era starting in

the 2010s: when new- generation micro-\nanosatellites (e.g.,

PlanetLabs, Skybox) are added to the increasing constellation

of multiagency sensors (e.g., Sentinels, and the next generation

of satellites such as SMAP, hyperspectral satellites like NASA’s

HyspIRI and others from private industry)

Motivation for the Remote Sensing Handbook started with a

simple conversation with Irma Shagla-Britton, acquisitior editor

for remote sensing and GIS books of Taylor & Francis Group/

CRC Press, way back in early 2013. Irma was informally get-

ting my advice about “doing a new and unique book” on remote

sensing. Neither the specic subject nor the editor was identi-

ed. What was clear to me though was that I certainly did not

want to lead the eort. I was nearing the end of my third year of

recovery from colon cancer, and the last thing I wanted to do was

to take any book project, forget a multivolume remote sensing

magnum opus, as it ultimately turned out. However, mostly out

of courtesy for Irma, I did some preliminary research. I tried to

identify a specic topic within remote sensing where there was a

sucient need for a full-edged book. My research showed that

there was not a single book that would provide a complete and

comprehensive coverage of the entire subject of remote sensing

starting from data capture, to data preprocessing, to data analy-

sis, to myriad land and water applications. ere are, of course,

numerous excellent books on remote sensing, each covering a

specic subject matter. However, if a student, scientist, or practi-

tioner of remote sensing wanted a standard reference on the sub-

ject, he or she would have to look for numerous books or journal

articles and oen a coherence of these topics would still be le

uncovered or dicult to comprehend for students and even for

many experts with less experience. Guidance on how to approach

the study of remote sensing and capture its state of the art and

advances remained hazy and oen required referring to a mul-

titude of references that may or may not be immediately avail-

able, and if available, how to go about it was still hazy to most.

During this process, I asked myself, several times, what remote

sensing book will be most interesting, productive, and useful to

a broad audience? e answer, each time, was very clear: “A com-

plete and comprehensive coverage of the state-of-the-art remote

sensing, capturing the advances that have taken place over the

last 50years, which will set the stage for a vision for the future.”

When this became clear, I started putting together the needed

topics to achieve such a goal. Soon I realized that the only way

xx Preface

to achieve this goal was through a multivolume book on remote

sensing. Because the number of chapters was more than 80, this

appeared to be too daunting, too overwhelming, and too big a

project to accomplish. Yet I sent the initial idea to Irma, who I

thought would say “forget it” and ask me to focus on a single-

volume book. But to my surprise, Irma not only encouraged the

idea but also had a number of useful suggestions. So what started

as intellectual curiosity turned into this full-edged multivol-

ume Remote Sensing Handbook.

However, what worried me greatly was the virtual impossibil-

ity (my thought at that time) of gathering the best authors. What

was also crystal clear to me was that unless the very best were

attracted to the book project, it was simply not worth the eort.

I had made up my mind to give up the book project, unless Igot

the full support of a large number of the nest practitioners of

remote sensing from around the world. So, I spent a few weeks

researching the best authors to lead each chapter and wrote to

them to participate in the Remote Sensing Handbook project.

What really surprised me was that almost all the authors I con-

tacted agreed to lead and write a chapter. is was truly surreal.

ese are extremely busy people of great scientic reputation

and achievements. For them to spend the time, intellect, and

energy to write an in-depth and insightful book chapter spread

across a year or more is truly amazing. Most also agreed to put

together a writing team, as I had requested, to ensure greater

perspective for each chapter. In the end, we had 300+ authors

writing 82 chapters.

At this stage, I was somewhat drawn into the project as if by

destiny and felt compelled to go ahead. One of the authors who

agreed to lead the chapter mentioned “…..whether it was even

possible.” is is exactly what I felt, too. But I had reached the

stage of no return, and I took on the book project with all the

seriousness it deserved. It required some real changes to my

lifestyle: professional and personal. Travel was reduced to bare

minimum during most of the book project. Most weekends were

spent editing, writing, and organizing, and other social activi-

ties were reduced. Accomplishing such complex work requires

the highest levels of discipline, planning, and strategy. But,

above all, I felt blessed with good health. By the time the book

is published, I will have completed about 5years from my colon

cancer surgery and chemotherapy. So I am as happy to see this

book released as I am with the miracle of cancer cure (I feel con-

dent to say so).

But it is the chapter authors who made it all feasible. ey

amazed me throughout the book project. First, the quality and

content of each of the chapters were of the highest standards.

Second, with very few exceptions, chapters were delivered

on time. ird, edited chapters were revised thoroughly and

returned on time. Fourth, all my requests on various formatting

and quality enhancements were addressed. is is what made

the three-volume Remote Sensing Handbook possible and if I

may say so, a true magnum opus on the subject. My heartfelt

gratitude to these great authors for their dedication. It has been

my great honor to work with these dedicated legends. Indeed,

Icall them my heroes in a true sense.

Overall, the preparation of the Remote Sensing Handbook

took two and a half years, from the time book chapters and

authors were being identied to its nal publication. e three

books are designed in such a way that a reader can have all

three books as a standard reference or have individual books to

study specic subject areas. e three books of Remote Sensing

Handbook are

Remotely Sensed Data Characterization, Classication,

and Accuracies: 31 Chapters

Land Resources Monitoring, Modeling, and Mapping with

Remote Sensing: 28 Chapters

Remote Sensing of Water Resources, Disasters, and Urban

Studies: 27 Chapters

ere are about 2500 pages in the 3 volumes.

e wide array of topics covered is very comprehensive.

e topics covered in Remotely Sensed Data Characterization,

Classication, and Accuracies include (1) satellites and sensors;

(2) remote sensing fundamentals; (3) data normalization, har-

monization, and standardization; (4) vegetation indices and

their within- and across-sensor calibration; (5) image classi-

cation methods and approaches; (6) change detection; (7)inte-

grating remote sensing with other spatial data; (8) GNSS; (9)

crowdsourcing; (10) cloud computing; (11) Google Earth remote

sensing; (12)accuracy assessments; and (13) remote sensing law.

e topics covered in Land Resources Monitoring, Modeling,

and Mapping with Remote Sensing include (1) vegetation and

biomass, (2) agricultural croplands, (3) rangelands, (4) phenol-

ogy and food security, (5) forests, (6) biodiversity, (7) ecology,

(8)land use/land cover, (9) carbon, and (10) soils.

e topics covered in Remote Sensing of Water Resources,

Disasters, and Urban Studies include (1) hydrology and water

resources; (2) water use and water productivity; (3) oods;

(4)wetlands; (5) snow and ice; (6) glaciers, permafrost, and ice;

(7) geomorphology; (8) droughts and drylands; (9) disasters;

(10)volcanoes; (11) re; (12) urban areas; and (13) nightlights.

ere are many ways to use the Remote Sensing Handbook.

A lot of thought went into organizing the books and chap-

ters. So you will see a ow from chapter to chapter and book

to book. As you read through the chapters, you will see how

they are interconnected and how reading all of them provides

you with greater in-depth understanding. Some of you may be

more interested in a particular volume. Oen, having all three

books as reference material is ideal for most remote sensing

experts, practitioners, or students; however, you can also refer

to individual books based on your interest. We have also made

attempts to ensure the chapters are self-contained. at way

you can focus on a chapter and read it through, without having

to be overly dependent on other chapters. Taking this perspec-

tive, there is a slight (~5%–10%) material that may be repeated

in some of the chapters. is is done deliberately. For example,

when you are reading a chapter on LiDAR or radar, you don’t

want to go all the way back to another chapter (e.g., Chapter1,

Remotely Sensed Data Characterization, Classication, and

Accuracies) to understand the characteristics of these sensors.

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