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2646 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 54, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2019

VI. CONCLUSION

This paper proposed two load transient enhancement control

techniques: segmented frequency modulator (SFM) and MCW

to reduce the recovery time during heavy-to-light and light-to-

heavy load transients. We veriﬁed these two methods through

a proof-of-concept converter prototype implemented in 65-nm

CMOS. The 15-phase interleaved converter implementation

supports output voltages of 1 V from a 2.4-V input supply

attaining 82.8% peak efﬁciency at an output power density

of 240 mW/mm

. From light-to-heavy and heavy-to-light load

transients, the converter can also reach a fast recovery speed

of 5.1 and 4.38 mA/ns, respectively, reﬂecting a state-of-the-

art transient recovery performance.

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U-Fat Chio (S’07–M’12) received the B.Sc. degree

in electrical engineering and the M.Sc. degree

in communications engineering from National Sun

Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, in 2002 and

2004, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from the

University of Macau, Macau, China, in 2012.

From 2004 to 2005, he was with DenMOS Tech-

nology, Inc., Hsinchu, Taiwan. From 2012 to 2017,

he was a Post-Doctoral Fellow with the State Key

Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI, Uni-

versity of Macau. In 2018, he joined the Chongqing

University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing, China. His research

interests include the designs of power management ICs and high-speed analog-

to-digital converters.

Kuo-Chih Wen was born in Hsinchu, Taiwan.

He received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering

from National Chung Hsing University, Taichung,

Taiwan, in 2006, and the M.S. degree from the

Graduate Institute of Communication Engineering,

Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singa-

pore, in 2009.

He was a Research Assistant with the State Key

Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI, Uni-

versity of Macau, Macau, China. He is currently with

Synopsys Macau Ltd., Macau. His research interests

include power management integrated circuit design and high-speed SerDes.

CHIO et al.: INTEGRATED DC–DC CONVERTER WITH SFM AND MCW CONTROL 2647

Sai-Weng Sin (S’98–M’06–SM’13) received the

B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical and

electronics engineering from the University of

Macau, Macau, China, in 2001, 2003, and 2008,

respectively.

He is currently an Associate Professor with the

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

(ECE), Faculty of Science and Technology (FST),

University of Macau, where he is also the Deputy

Director (Academic) of the Institute of Micro-

electronics and the Academic Coordinator of the

State-Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI. He has authored

or coauthored one book Generalized Low-Voltage Circuit Techniques for Very

High-Speed T i me-Interleaved Analog-to-Digital Con verters (Springer) and

130 technical journals and conference papers in the ﬁeld of high-performance

data converters and analog mixed-signal integrated circuits. He holds seven

U.S. patents.

Dr. Sin was a Review Committee Member of PrimeAsia, Technical Pro-

gram and Organization Committee of the 2004 IEEJ AVLSI Workshop, and

the Special Session Co-Chair and Technical Program Committee Member

of 2008 IEEE APCCAS Conference. He is a member of Technical Pro-

gram Committee and a Review Committee Member of the IEEE Asian

Solid-State Circuits Conference (A-SSCC), International Symposium on Cir-

cuits and Systems (ISCAS), International Conference on Integrated Circuits,

Technologies and Applications (ICTA), International Wireless Symposium,

the IEEE S

ENSORS JOURNAL, and IEEE RFIT Conference. He was a co-

recipient of the 2011 ISSCC Silk Road Award, the Student Design Contest

Award in A-SSCC 2011, and the 2011 State Science and Technology Progress

Award (second-class), China. He is the Track Chair in TPC of IEEE TENCON.

He was the Secretary of IEEE Solid-State Circuit Society (SSCS) Macau

Chapter (with 2012 IEEE SSCS Outstanding Chapter Award) and IEEE

Macau CAS/COM Joint Chapter (with 2009 IEEE CAS Chapter of the Year

Award). He Co-Supervised the student that got the 2015 SSCS Pre-Doctoral

Achievement Award.

Chi-Seng Lam (S’04–M’12–SM’16) received the

B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical and

electronics engineering from the University of

Macau (UM), Macau, China, in 2003, 2006, and

2012, respectively.

From 2006 to 2009, he was an Electrical and

Mechanical Engineer with UM, responsible for the

environmental protection and energy saving projects.

In 2009, he was a Laboratory Technician with UM.

In 2013, he was a Post-Doctoral Fellow with The

Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong.

He is currently an Assistant Professor with the State Key Laboratory of

Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI, Institute of Microelectronics, UM, and the

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, UM. He has coauthored

or coedited four books Design and Control of Hybrid Active Power Filters

(Springer, 2014), Parallel Power Electronics Filters in Three-Phase Four-Wire

Systems—Principle, Control and Design (Springer, 2016), Tutorials in Circuits

and Systems Selected Topics in Power, RF, and Mixed-Signal ICs (River

Publishers, 2017), and Adaptive Hybrid Active Power F ilter s (Springer, 2019)

and more than 80 technical journals and conference papers. He holds four

U.S. patents and two Chinese patents. His research interests include integrated

power electronics controllers, power management integrated circuits, power

electronics converters, power quality compensators, renewable energy, and

wireless power transfer.

Dr. Lam served as a member for Organizing Committee or Technical

Program Committee of several international conferences (ASSCC 2019,

IECON 2018, IESES 2018, ASP-DAC 2016, and TENCON 2015). He was a

recipient of the IEEE PES Chapter Outstanding Engineer Award in 2016,

the Macao Science and Technology Invention Award (2nd Class and 3rd

Class), the Research and Development Award for Postgraduates (Ph.D.)

in 2018, 2014, and 2012, respectively, and the 3rd RIUPEEEC Merit Paper

Award in 2005. He received the Macao Government Ph.D. Research Schol-

arship from 2009 to 2012 and the Macao Foundation Postgraduate Research

Scholarship from 2003 to 2005. He was the Chair of IEEE Macau CAS

Chapter from 2017 to 2018. He is currently the Vice Chair of IEEE Macau

Section and a Secretary of IEEE Macau PES/PELS Joint Chapter. In 2007,

2008, and 2015, he was the GOLD Ofﬁcer, a Student Branch Ofﬁcer, and a

Secretary of IEEE Macau Section.

Yan Lu (S’12–M’14–SM’17) received the Ph.D.

degree in electronic and computer engineering from

The Hong Kong University of Science and Technol-

ogy (HKUST), Hong Kong, in 2013.

In 2014, he joined the State Key Laboratory

of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI, University of

Macau, Macau, China, as an Assistant Professor.

He has coauthored more than 60 peer-reviewed tech-

nical papers and one book CMOS Integrated Circuit

Design for Wireless Power Transfer (Springer), and

has edited one book Selected Topics in P ower, RF,

and Mixed-Signal ICs (River Publishers). His research interests include

wireless power transfer circuits and systems, low-power analog circuits, and

next-generation power management solutions.

Dr. Lu is serving as a TPC Member for ISSCC and CICC. He was a

recipient or co-recipient of the 2018 Macao Science and Technology Award

(second prize, with the ﬁrst prize vacancy), the IEEE Solid-State Circuits

Society Pre-Doctoral Achievement Award 2013–2014, the IEEE CAS Society

Outstanding Young Author Award 2017, and the ISSCC 2017 Takuo Sugano

Award for Outstanding Far-East Paper. He served as a Guest Editor for the

IEEE T

RANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS I (TCAS-I) in 2019 and

the IEEE T

RANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS II (TCAS-II) from

2018 to 2019.

Franco Maloberti (M’84–SM’87–F’96–LF’16)

received the Laurea degree (summa cum laude)in

physics from the University of Parma, Parma, Italy,

and the Dr. Honoris Causa degree in electronics

from INAOE, San Andrés Cholula, Mexico.

He was a Visiting Professor with ETH-PEL,

Zürich, Switzerland, and EPFL-LEG, Lausanne,

Switzerland. He was the TI/J. Kilby Analog

Engineering Chair Professor with Texas A&M

University, College Station, TX, USA, and the

Distinguished Microelectronic Chair Professor

with The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA. He is an

Emeritus Professor with the University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy. He is an

Honorary Professor with the University of Macau, Macau, China. He has

authored or coauthored more than 600 published papers and seven books.

He holds 38 patents. His professional expertise is in the design, analysis and

characterization of integrated circuits and analog digital applications, mainly

in the areas of switched capacitor circuits, data converters, interfaces for

telecommunication and sensor systems, and CAD for analog and mixed A-D

design.

Dr. Maloberti was the IEEE CAS BoG Member from 2003 to 2005.

He was a recipient of the 1999 IEEE CAS Society Meritorious Service

Award, the 2000 CAS Society Golden Jubilee Medal, the IEEE Millenium

Medal, the 1996 IEE Fleming Premium, the ESSCIRC 2007 Best Paper

Award, the IEEJ Workshop 2007 and 2010 Best Paper Award, and the

IEEE CAS Society 2013 Mac Van Valkenburg Award. He is the Chairman

of the Academic Committee of the AMSV State Key Laboratory, Macau.

He was an Associate Editor of the IEEE T

RANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS

AND

SYSTEMS II (TCAS-II). He was the Past President of the IEEE CAS

Society, from 2017 to 2018, and the President from 2015 to 2016. He was

the President of the IEEE Sensor Council from 2002 to 2003. He was the

Vice President Region 8 of IEEE CAS from 1995 to 1997, and the Vice

President of the Publications IEEE CAS from 2007 to 2008. He was the

Distinguished Lecturer of IEEE SSC Society from 2009 to 2010 and IEEE

CAS Society from 2006 to 2007 and from 2012 to 2013.

2648 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 54, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2019

Rui P. Martins (M’88–SM’99–F’08) was born

in 1957. He received the Bachelor, Master, and

Ph.D. degrees, as well as the Habilitation for Full-

Professor in electrical engineering and computers

from the Department of Electrical and Computer

Engineering (DECE), Instituto Superior Técnico

(IST), University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal,

in 1980, 1985, 1992, and 2001, respectively.

Since 1980, he has been with the DECE/IST,

University of Lisbon. Since 1992, has been on leave

from the University of Lisbon and with DECE,

Faculty of Science and Technology (FST), University of Macau (UM), Macau,

China, where he has been the Chair Professor since 2013. From 1994 to 1997,

he was the Dean of the Faculty with FST and has been a Vice Rector with

UM since 1997. He created, in 2003, the Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI

Research Laboratory, UM, elevated in 2011 to State Key Laboratory (SKLAB)

of China (the ﬁrst in engineering in Macau), being its Founding Director.

He was the Founding Chair of UMTEC (UM company) from 2009 to 2019,

supporting the incubation and creation in 2018 of Digiﬂuidic, the ﬁrst UM

Spin-Off, whose CEO is a SKLAB Ph.D. graduate. He was also a Co-Founder

of Synopsys-Macau from 2001 to 2002. From 2008 to 2018, he was a Vice

Rector (Research) and from 2018 to 2023, he was a Vice Rector (Global

Affairs). Within the scope of his teaching and research activities, he has taught

21 bachelor’s and master’s courses and, in UM, has supervised (or co-superv-

ised) 46 theses, master’s (21) and Ph.D. (25). He has coauthored 7 books

and 11 book chapters, 497 papers in scientiﬁc journals (184) and in conference

proceedings (313), and other 64 academic works in a total of 612 publications.

He holds 33 patents, 30 in U.S. patents and 3 in Taiwan patents.

Dr. Martins was a member of IEEE CASS Fellow Evaluation Committee

(2013, 2014, 2018—Chair, and 2019). In 2010, he was elected, unanimously,

as a Corresponding Member of the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, being

the only Portuguese Academician living in Asia. He was a recipient of

the IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation (CEDA) Outstanding

Service Award in 2016. He received two Macao Government Decorations:

the Medal of Professional Merit (Portuguese 1999) and the Honorary Title

of Value (Chinese 2001). He was the Founding Chair of IEEE Macau

Section from 2003 to 2005 and IEEE Macau Joint-Chapter on Circuits and

Systems (CAS)/Communications (COM) from 2005 to 2008 [2009 World

Chapter of the Year of IEEE CAS Society (CASS)], and the General Chair

IEEE Asia–Paciﬁc Conference on CAS—APCCAS’2008. He was the IEEE

Nominating Committee of Division I Director (CASS/EDS/SSCS) (2014) and

the IEEE CASS Nominations Committee from 2016 to 2017. He was the Gen-

eral Chair of ACM/IEEE Asia South Paciﬁc Design Automation Conference—

ASP-digital-to-analog converter (DAC)’2016. He was the Associate Editor

of the IEEE T

RANSACTIONS ON CAS II: EXPRESS BRIEFS from 2010 to

2013 and nominated as the Best Associate Editor from 2012 to 2013. He was

the Vice President (VP) from 2005 to 2014 and the President from 2014 to

2017 of the Association of Portuguese Speaking Universities (AULP). He was

the VP Region 10 (Asia, Australia, and Paciﬁc) from 2009 to 2011, and VP-

World Regional Activities and Membership of IEEE CASS from 2012 to 2013.

IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 54, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2019 2649

A 6800-μm

Resistor-Based Temperature Sensor

With ±0.35

◦

C(3σ) Inaccuracy

in 180-nm CMOS

Jan A. Angevare , Student Member, IEEE,andKoﬁA.A.Makinwa , Fellow, IEEE

Abstract—This paper describes a compact resistor-based tem-

perature sensor that has been realized in a 180-nm CMOS

process. It occupies only 6800 μm

, thanks to the use of a

highly digital voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)-based phase-

domain sigma–delta modulator, whose loop ﬁlter consists of a

compact digital counter. Despite its small size, the sensor achieves

±0.35

◦

C(3σ ) inaccuracy from −35

◦

C to 125

◦

C. Furthermore,

it achieves 0.12

◦

C(1σ ) resolution at 2.8 kSa/s, which is

mainly limited by the time-domain quantization imposed by the

counter.

Index Terms— CMOS temperature sensor, phase-to-digital

converter, thermal sensing, voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)-

based phase-domain sigma–delta modulator (PDM), Wien

bridge (WB).

I. INTRODUCTION

EAT dissipation is a major issue in system-on-chips

(SoCs) [1] since cooling techniques have failed to keep

up with the growing energy density of modern processes.

In consequence, SoCs heat up rapidly and may overheat if

their power consumption is not throttled back. Overheating

accelerates aging, degrades reliability, and may even cause a

system failure. Therefore, modern SoCs usually incorporate

thermal management systems, which monitor die temperature

and throttle perf ormance when needed either by reducin g clock

frequencies and/or supply voltages [2], [3].

The key speciﬁcations of such temperature sensors are

speed, size, accuracy, and supply voltage insensitivity. Ther-

mal transients have time constants in the order of a few

milliseconds and, therefore, must be sampled at kSa/s rates.

The h eat distribution in an SoC will typically be non-

uniform, featuring a number of so-called hot-spots whose

intensity and location change dynamically as a function of

workload. As a result, accurate thermal monitoring often

requires the use of several tens of temperature sensors [4],

and so each of them should be as small as possible. This

makes it easier to include them in the layout of dense digital

Manuscript receiv e d January 29, 2019; revised April 24, 2019; accepted

May 26, 2019. Date of publication July 2, 2019; date of current version

September 24, 2019. This paper was approved by Guest Editor Jae-Yoon

Sim. (Corresponding author: Jan A. Angevare.)

The authors are with the Department of Microelectronics, Delft

Uni versity of Technology, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands (e-mail:

j.a.angevare@tudelft.nl; k.a.a.makinwa@tudelft.nl).

Color versions of one or more of the ﬁgures in this article are available

online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.

Digital Object Identiﬁer 10.1109/JSSC.2019.2921450

blocks and, therefore, easier to place near potential hot-

spots. Moderate accuracy is required to reduce the safety

margin between the m easured and the desired performance

throttling temp eratures, and thus maximize performance.

Finally, such sensors should be insensitive to supply voltage

changes since performance throttling will chang e the latter

signiﬁcantly.

Most temperature sensors proposed for thermal management

applications belong to one of the three types, i.e., bipolar

junction transistor (BJT), gate-delay, and thermal-diffusivity-

based temperature sensors. The most common are BJT-based

temperature sensors [5]. In [6], a current-mode readout tech-

nique is used to realize a small (3800 μm

) and moder-

ately accurate (1.8

◦

C from −20

◦

C to 130

◦

C) n-p-n-based

temperature sensor. In later work [7], the readout was modiﬁed

to work with p-n-ps, which are more commonly available.

Although BJT-based sensors can be quite accurate, their

voltage headroom requirements do not scale with the tech-

nology. As a scaling-friendly alternative, sensors that exploit

the temperature-dependent delay of CMOS logic gates have

been proposed [8], [9]. Although they can be quite small,

they are inherently sensitive to supply voltage variations and

MOSFET aging. The third type of sensor exploits the

temperature-dependent rate at which heat diffuses through

silicon. Such th ermal diffusivity (TD) sensors are as accurate

as BJT-based sensors, can be quite compact (1650 μm

[10]),

and scale well with the technology. However, they are com-

paratively power hungry [10]–[13].

Recently, temperature sensors based on silicided polysilico n

resistors have been shown to be both stable, accurate, and

energy efﬁcient [14], [15]. The vo ltage insensitivity and large

temperature coefﬁcient (0.3%/

◦

C) of this type of resistors

make the resulting sensors well suited for use in thermal

monitoring applications. However, only two resistor-based

temperature sensor designs with areas less than 10000 μm

have been reported so far [15], [16]. Of these, only [15]

achieves good accuracy, but its output is a temperature-

dependent frequency, and, therefore additional circuitry is

required to generate a digital output.

This paper, an expanded version of [17], proposes ways

of reducing the area of resistor-based temperature sensors

while also maintaining their advantages: voltage insensitivity,

accuracy, and energy efﬁciency. The result is a temperature

sensor that achieves both small area (6800 μm

) and good

accuracy [±0.35

◦

C(3σ) after a two-point trim].

See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

2650 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 54, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2019

Fig. 1. (a) Differential WB. (b) PPF.

II. RESISTOR-BASED TEMPERATURE SENSORS

A. Sensor Topologies

There are two ways of using a temperature-dependent resis-

tor R(T ) to generate a digital representation of temperature.

The ﬁrst involves the use of a Wheatstone bridge (WhB) to

compare the value of R(T ) with that of a stable resistor, or to

one with a different temperature dependence. The output of

the bridge can then be digitized by an ADC [18]. The second

involves the combination o f R(T ) with a stable capacitor to

realize a temperature-dependent RC ﬁlter, whose phase shift

can then be digitized using a stable time reference [14]–[16].

On-chip resistors also suffer from process spread. This

is particularly problematic in a WhB, which employs two

different types of resistors, and, therefore, suffers from two

different sources of spread [18]. Although on-chip capacitors

also suffer from the spread, they are comparatively stable

over temperature and so contribu te much less temperature-

sensing error. Furthermore, SoCs are usually clocked by

sufﬁciently accurate time references. For example, for a Wien-

bridge (WB) ﬁlter realized with 0.3%/K resistors, the 100-ppm

frequency error of a typical low-cost crystal oscillator will only

result in 0.025

◦

C temperature-sensing error.

B. Filter Choice

AsshowninFig.1,twotypesofRC ﬁlters have been used

in resistor-based temperature sensors: the WB [14] and the

polyphase ﬁlter (PPF) [15]. Both combine ﬁrst order low- and

high-pass ﬁlters to achieve double the phase sensitivity of a

ﬁrst-order ﬁlter. However, a PPF requires fewer components

than a WB ﬁlter. It also has slightly more phase sensitivity,

at the expense of a slightly more non-linear resistance-to-phase

characteristic. However, when driven by a rail-to-rail square

wave, the output of a PPF will exceed the supply rails, which

complicates the design of its readout circuitry. Although this

Fig. 2. (a) Single-ended WB. (b) Output waveform of a single-ended WB

at different temperatures.

is not the case for a WB, the resulting output voltage swing

will still exceed the linear range of a simple differential pair.

For this reason, WB sensors are usually read out in current-

mode [Fig. 1(a)], by connecting the resistors in their output

branches to a virtual ground [14] or to a current buffer [19].

In this work, a single-ended WB is used, which has the

same number of components and occupies the same area as a

PPF [Fig. 2(a)]. It is r ealized with silicided p-poly resistors

= 28 k) and MIM capacitors (C

= 1.84 pF),

resulting in a center frequency F

= 3 MHz at room

temperature. In the chosen 180-nm process, it occupies

only 3700 μm

. When driven by a 1.8-V square wave at F

its output current is as shown in Fig. 2(b). It can be seen that

both its shape (phase) and amplitude vary signiﬁcantly over

temperature.

III. S

YSTEM-LEVEL OVERVIEW

Fig. 3 shows a simpliﬁed block diagram of the proposed

system. It consists of 20 compact temperature sensors, together

with sh ared bias current and phase reference generator,

the latter being driven by an external frequency reference

REF

(= 75 MHz). Each sensor consists of a single-ended

WB, whose phase-shifted output current is digitized by a

phase-domain sigma-delta modulator (PDM) [12]. Instead

of using an analog integrator based on large capacitors [12],

the modulator’s loop ﬁlter uses a compact discrete-time inte-

grator based on a counter, which is driven by a current-

controlled oscillator (CCO) [11]. In turn, the CCO is driven by

a current buffer, whose low input impedance facilitates the cur-

rent readout of the WB. To provide robustness against process

spread, the center frequency of the CCO can be trimmed via

a current DAC (IDAC). In Section IV, the design of each of

these sub-blocks and their impact on sensor performance will

be discussed in more detail.

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